RECOMMENDATIONS 

OF 

,'jLLIONS'S PRINCIPLES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The undersigned have great satisfaction in recommending to the 
*public " The Principles of English Grammar," by Prof. Bullions, of 
the Albany Academy. Proceeding upon the plan of Murray, he has 
availed himself of the labours of the most distinguished grammarians, 
both at home and abroad ; and made such a happy use of the helps af- 
forded him, that we know of no work of the kind, in the same compass, 
which is equal to it in point of merit. Among its many excellences, 
it is not the least, that Prof. B. has given a practical illustration of every 
principle from the beginning to the end ; and the possession of his 
Grammar entirely supersedes the necessity of procuring a separate vo- 
lume of Exercises on the Rules of Syntax. In a word, we can truly 
say, in the language of the author, " That there is nothing of much im- 
portance in Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works of subsequent 
writers, that will not be found condensed here." 

John Ludlow, Alonzo Crittenton, 

Isaac Ferris, J. M. Garfield, 

Alfred Conkling, Robert McKee. 

T. Rometn Beck, Gideon Hawlet, 

Many, October 8, 1834. 



[An Extract from the Minutes of the Board of Trustees of the Albany 
Academy.] 
At a meeting of the trustees of the Albany Academy, held June 27th, 
1334. the committee appointed to examine the manuscript English 
Grammar submitted by the Rev. Mr. Bullions, reported, that they had 
examined the same, and were very favourably impressed towards it, 
and recommend that the same, when published, be adopted as a text 
book in the Academy. 
On motion, 
Resolved, That the report be accepted, and that the work be adopted 
as a text book whenever it shall be published. 

A copy. 

T. Rometn Beck, Clerk. 



[An Extract from the Minutes of the Board of Trustees of the Albany 
Female Academy.] 

At a meeting of the trustees of the Albany Female Academy, held on 
the third instant, the book committee reported, that they had examined 
Professor Bullions's English Grammar recently published in this city ; 
and that in their opinion it contained all that is useful in the most im- 
proved treatises now in use, as well as much valuable original matter ; 
that from the copious exercises in false syntax, it will supersede the 
necessity of a separate volume on that subject ; and recommend that it 
should be used as the text book in this institution. 

On motion, it was resolved, that the report of the committee be ao 
A 



cepted, and the treatise on English Grammar, by the Rev. Peter Bul- 
lions, adopted as the text book in this academy. 

An Extract from the Minutes. 

A. Crittenton, Secretary of the 
Board of Trustees, and 
Principal of the Academy. 
Albany, October 13, 1834. 

Sing-Sing, November 1, 1S34. 
Dear Sir. — I have examined your English Grammar with no small 
degree of satisfaction ; and though I am not in the habit of recommend- 
ing books in this manner, I am constrained in this case to say, I think 
you have conferred another important favour on the cause of education. 
The great defects of most of the English grammars now in use, particu- 
larly in the omission of many necessary definitions, or in the want of 
perspicuity in those given, and also in the rules of construction, are in a 
great measure happily supplied. I am so well pleased with the result, 
of your labours, that 1 have adopted it (as I did your Greek Grammar) 
for both our institutions. 

Yours respectfully, 

Nathaniel S. Prime, Principal of 
Mount- Pleasant Academy, and 
Mt. P. Female Seminary. 
Rev. P. Bullions, Professor of 
Languages in Albany Academy. 

Extract of a Letter from W. D. Beat tie, Principal of Cambridge 
Academy, Washington County, N. Y. 

On a hasty perusal of the book, it more than realizes my ex- 
pectations. You have comprised in a small and cheap volume a vast 
number of excellent rules and observations, which, for their accuracy, 
and the extensive knowledge of our idiom which they evince, are fai 
above the range of the elementary works that I have seen. It possesse, 
great advantage over Murray's, which I have used hitherto, in having 
the exercises contained in the same volume. I have found it exceed- 
ingly difficult to make scholars supply themselves with the exercises. 
The grammar was all they had heard of before, and they did not like to 
incur a new expense for what they thought was unnecessary. 
Yours sincerely and respectfully, 

W. IX Beattie, 
Rev. Peter Bullions. 



[From the Albany Argus.] 

The Principles of English Grammar, comprising the substance T 
the most approved English Grammars extant, with copious exercis 
in Parsing and Syntax. For the use of academies and commc - 
schools. By the Rev. Peter Bullions, Professor of Languages ii 
the Albany Academy, Author of ' Elements of the Greek Language. 
Published by O. Steele. 
Among the multiplicity of books on education that are daily issuin 

from the press, it will not be deemed by any, after a full examination, 



Ill 

presumptuous, if we assign a high place to the one whose title is given 
above. It is founded on the grammar of Murray, which, after all that 
has been said of it, was the most comprehensive and satisfactory that 
had at that time issued from the English press. No better proof of this 
is necessary, than the fact that all the approved writers on this sub- 
ject since his day have largely borrowed from him. Taking Murray, 
then, as the basis of his work, Mr. Bullions has studiously investigated 
the productions of subsequent authors, such as Crombie, Lennie, 
Connel, Hiley, Grant, and numerous others, and incorporated what- 
ever appeared valuable. The syntax and etymology of the language 
is thus spread before the learner in a manageable compass, and he is 
enabled to apply it with facility. 

Ki Besides containing a full system of grammar, it is rendered more im- 
mediately useful for academies and common schools, by containing 
copious examples in good grammar for parsing, and in bad grammar 
for correction ; and all of these are arranged directly under the rule to 
which they apply. Thus, instead of two books, which are required, 
(the grammar and the exercises,) the learner finds both in one, for a 
price at least not greater than the others. 

In the notes to the syntax, and in the appendix, all persons who are 
desirous of cultivating a good English style, will find rules for their 
guidance. The errors and mistakes which are apt to creep in, are 
pointed out, as well as our colloquial and national peculiarities. 

We conclude by repeating our opinion, that a valuable addition to 
our knowledge of the construction of the English language has been 
made in the work, and that it is deserving of extensive patronage. 



[From the Albany Evening Journal.] 
Professor Bullions's English Grammar is obviously the fruit ot 
iound and enlightened judgment, patient labour, and close reflection. 
It partakes of the character both of an original work and of a compila- 
tion. Following the principles of Murray, and adopting in the main 
vine plan of Lennie, the most distinguished of his successors, the aim 
'of the author, as he states in his preface, has been to correct what is 
erroneous, to retrench what is superfluous or unimportant, to compress 
what is prolix, to elucidate what is obscure, and to determine what is left 
doubtful in the books already in use. In labouring to accomplish this 
excellent design, he has contrived to condense, in very perspicuous, 
language, within the compass of a small, handsomely printed volume,, 
about 200 pages, and costing but 50 cents, all that is requisite in this, 
form to the acquisition of a thorough knowledge of the grammar of our 
language. It contains so great a number of exercises in parsing and 
syntax, judiciously interspersed, as to supersede the necessity of sepa- 
ate manuals of exercises now in use. Among other highly useful 
lings to be found in this book, and not usually met with in works of 
.-.his nature, are some very valuable critical remarks, and a pretty long 
f ." list of improper expression s,'' which unhappily have crept into use in 
'■ different parts of our country. Under the head of Prosody, the author 
has, it is believed, given a better explanation of the principles of Eng- 
lish versification than is to be found in any other work of this nature 
"in this country. In short, I hazard the prediction that this will he 



iv 

found to be decidedly the plainest, most perfect, and most useeful ma- 
nual of English grammar that has yet appeared. 

[From the Troy Whig.] 
BULLIONS^ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
We have recently examined, with considerable care, anew work — 
an English Grammar, by Rev. Peter Bullions, Professor of Languages 
in Albany Academy : O. Steele, publisher. It is on a plan similar to 
that of Lindley Murray, but is much more complete in its parts and 
particular in its illustrations. The work possesses decided merit, and 
we think, were it introduced into our schools, would be found extreme- 
ly useful to learners in acquiring a correct, grammatical knowledge of 
the English language. The subject is treated in a plain practical man- 
ner, and divested of much of that obscurity which renders its study dry 
and uninteresting. The same author published, two or three year3 
since, a Greek grammar, and designs to complete the series by publish- 
ing a Latin grammar. It appears extremely desirable that uniformity 
in the arrangement, definitions, and rules in the English, Latin, and 
Greek grammars, be adopted, so far as can be consistently done ; and 
this object the author has in view in publishing his grammars. We 
should be glad to see those text books, emanating from the Albany 
Academy, the best institution of the kind in the State, and probably in 
the United States, extensively introduced into our academies and 
schools. The work above noticed is for sale at W. S. Parker & Son's : 
price 50 cents. 



[From the New-York American.] 
The Principles of English Grammar, &c. &c. By the Rev. Peter 
Bullions, Professor of Languages in the Albany Academy. Alba- 
ny. O. Steele. 

The plan of Murray's Grammar is followed in this new one; the 
aim of the author being, by judicious retrenching and condensing, and 
by bringing the whole up to the state of present improvements, to put 
in the hands of youth a less prolix and bulky grammar than that on 
which it is modelled. Another aim of the compiler is so to arrange 
the rules and principles of general grammar, as that they may apply to, 
or be in perfect harmony with, the grammars of the dead languages. 
He is preparing a series of grammars, Greek, Latin, and English, all, 
as far as general principles are concerned, upon the same plan and 
arrangement ; and this will undoubtedly simplify the study of all three. 
Upon such cursory examinations as we have found time to give this 
work, it seems to us well done. 



[From the Biblical Repertory, a literary and religious publication, edited at 
the Princeton Theological Seminary.] 

We know Mr. Bullions only as the author of a Greek and an English 
Grammar. The latter is decidedly the best with which we are ac- 
quainted, and the same perspicacity and strength which it exhibits are 
exhibited in the Greek one. 



THE 

PRINCIPLES 



OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR: 



COMPRISING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE MOST APPROVED 
ENGLISH GRAMMARS EXTANT. 



COPIOUS EXERCISES 

IN 

PARSING AND SYNTAX 

FOR THE USE OF ACADEMIES AND COMMON SCHOOLS. 

(ON THE PLAN OF MURRAY'S GRAMMAR.) 

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED. 



BY THE REV. PETER BULLIONS, D. D. 

PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY ; AUTHOR OF 
" ELEMENTS OP THE GREEK LANGUAGE. " 



NEW-YORK : 
ROBERT CARTER, 112 CANAL-STREET. 

1837. 









Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1837, by 
Peter Bullions, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the 
United States for the Southern ^testrict of New-York. 

Kent Law Boo* CO.. 
Jan. 22. 1937 



PREFACE. 



A knowledge of English Grammar is very properly considered an 
indispensable part of an English education ; and is now taught as 
such, in all our Academies and Common Schools. The great num- 
ber of elementary works which have recently appeared on this subject, 
is a pleasing evidence of the attention which has been bestowed upon 
it. Among these, none has enjoyed greater favour than the Grammar 
of Lindlet Murray ; and the high rank which it still holds among 
the numerous works which have appeared since its publication, is a 
decided testimony to the soundness of its principles and the excellence 
of the system. With all its excellence, however, it is far from being 
incapable of improvement ; and the attempt add to its value as a ma- 
nual for schools, by correcting what is erroneous, retrenching what is 
superfluous or unimportant, compressing what is prolix, elucidating 
what is obscure, determining what was left doubtful, supplying what 
is defective, and bringing up the whole to that state of improvement to 
which the labours of eminent scientific and practical writers of the pre- 
sent day have so greatly contributed, can hardly fail, if well executed, 
to prove acceptable to the public. Such was my design ; and though 
there may be reason to regret that it has not been undertaken by some 
one more capable of doing justice to the subject, still it is hoped that 
the labour bestowed, in order to carry it into effect, will not be alto- 
gether in vain. 

In endeavouring to avoid the minutias and diffuseness of the larger 
Grammar, care has been taken to guard against the opposite extreme. 
The abridgments of Murray now in use, are little more than a synop- 
sis of the larger work ; presenting a mere outline of the subject, alto- 
gether too meagre to be of much service to the learner. The same 
remark is applicable to a great number of smaller works which have 
been published with a similar view ; namely, to serve as an introduc- 
tion to a more extended system. They are incapable themselves of 
imparting a satisfactory knowledge of the subject ; and yet it often 
happens, perhaps even in a majority of cases, that those who have 



IV PREFACE. 

commenced with the " introduction, 7 ' hare neither the time nor the 
means to get beyond it : and besides, unless the "introduction" be 
constructed on the same principle of arrangement and expression with 
the one which is intended to succeed, it will probably be found worse 
than useless ; for when a particular arrangement and phraseology 
have become familiar to the mind, there is great difficulty in studying 
another work on the same subject, in which the arrangement and 
expression are materially different. A Grammar, to be really valu- 
able, ought to be simple in its style and arrangement, so as to be 
adapted to the capacity of youth, for whose use it is designed ; com- 
prehensive, so as to be a sufficient guide in the most difficult, as well 
as in easy cases ; and its principles and rules should be rendered fa- 
miliar to the learner by numerous examples and exercises. 

To meet these views of what a Grammar for the use of Schools 
ought to be, the present compilation has been made, — with what suc- 
cess, a discerning public, to whose judgment it is respectfully submit- 
ted, will decide. Utility, not novelty, has been aimed at. In collect- 
ing materials, I have freely availed myself of the labours of others who 
have treated on the subject since the days of Murray, and particularly 
of those whose object has been similar to my own. Lennie's " Prin- 
ciples of English Grammar,'' deservedly esteemed, in Britain, the be6t 
compend for the use of schools which has yet appeared, I have adopted 
as the ground plan of my work. The works of Murray, Angus, 
Connel, Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Webster, and others in the ex- 
tensive collection of my friend Dr. Beck, to which I have enjoyed free 
access, have been consulted : and from all of them has been carefully 
selected, condensed, and arranged, whatever seemed to be suitable to 
my purpose. For several valuable suggestions, also, I am indebted to 
Dr. T. R. Beck, and several other literary friends, who kindly exam- 
ined my MSS. before they were sent to press, and freely communicated 
their sentiments. On the whole, it is believed that there is nothing of 
much importance in Murray's larger Grammar, or in the works of sub- 
sequent writers, that will not b° found condensed here. 

On the subject of Etymology , much expansion has been deemed un- 
necessary : I have therefore generally contented myself with statin g 
results, without embarrassing the work with the processes, often tedious 
.and obscure, which have led to them. In the classification of words, 
almost ail writers differ from each other ; and though on this subject 
ihere hasfeeen much discussion, nothing has yet been proposed which, 
on Xhe whol«e, appears less objectionable in principle, or more conve- 



PREFACE. T 

nient in practice, than that of Murray, which is therefore generally re- 
tained. 

In Syntax, greater fulness has been considered proper. In the ar- 
rangement of the Rules, scarcely two writers have followed the same 
order j and that here adopted is somewhat different from any other. 
Without regarding much the usual division of Syntax into Concord and 
Government, those rules are placed first which appear to be most sim- 
ple, and of most frequent occurrence. Care has been taken, however, 
to connect with a leading rule those of a subordinate character allied 
to it, and to add under every rule such notes and observations as ap- 
peared necessary to its illustration. Copious exercises in false syntax 
follow each rule, generally on the same page ; and exercises adapted 
to the notes, &c. are subjoined, distinguished by the number of the 
note to which they belong. For the purpose of better exercising the 
judgment of the pupil, there have been introduced at intervals, exer- 
cises on the preceding rules promiscuously arranged; and at the 
end, promiscuous exercises are furnished on all the rules and obser- 
vations ; — the whole forming a body of exercises, containing perhaps 
not fewer examples than Murray'3 separate volume of Exercises on 
the Rules of Syntax. In this, economy as well as convenience has 
been consulted. The leading principles have been made so prominent 
by being printed on a large type, that they may be easily studied by 
the youngest classes without a separate compend. Every thing ne- 
cessary for the fuller expansion and illustration of these principles, has 
been introduced in its place ; and the whole furnished with questions 
and appropriate exercises, in order to render every part familiar to the 
mind of the pupil as he advances, so that no larger treatise, and no 
separate book of exercises, will be necessary. Ths arrangement of 
the exercises on syntax on the same page with the rule which they 
are designed to illustrate, it is believed, will greatly diminish the la- 
bour, both of teacher and pupil, in going over this important part of 
the subject. 

Another object steadily kept in view in this compilation is to render 
it a profitable introduction to classical studies. "While all languages 
differ from each other in their mode of inflexion, and in some forms of 
expression peculiar to themselves, usually denominated idioms, their 
general principles are, to a very great extent, the same. It would seem, 
therefore, to be proper, in constructing grammars for different lan- 
guages, that the principles, so far as they are the same, should be ar- 
ranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly as possible in the 
same words. Were this carefully done, the study of the grammar of 

1* 



VI PREFACE. 

one language would be a very important aid in the study of another ; 
and the opportunity thus afforded of seeing wherein they agree and 
wherein they differ, would of itself furnish a profitable exercise in com- 
parative grammar. But when a Latin grammar is put into the hands 
of a boy, differing widely in its arrangement or phraseology from the 
English grammar which he had previously studied, and then in due 
time a Greek grammar different from both, not only is the benefit de- 
rived from the analogy of the different languages in a great measure 
lost, but the whole subject is made to appear intolerably intricate and 
mysterious. To remedy this evil, I resolved, some time ago, to pub- 
lish a series of Grammars of the English, Latin, and Greek languages, 
arranged in the same order, and expressed as nearly in the same words 
as the genius of the languages would permit. In the prosecution of 
this purpose, the Greek Grammar, on the foundation of Moor's, was 
published in 1831 ; the English Grammar of Murray, in a condensed 
form, embracing every thing valuable from later works, is now offered 
to the public ; and if the plan is favourably received, the Latin Gram- 
mar of Alexander Adam, adapted to the system, with improvements, 
will follow as soon as possible. 



PREFACE 

TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



In revising "The Principles of English Grammar" for a second 
edition, great care has been taken to render the whole as complete and 
accurate as possible, so as to supersede the necessity of future alter- 
ation. In the few alterations that have been made, greater precision 
and perspicuity have been aimed at, and it is hoped not without suc- 
cess. The designation of the tenses in common use is retained, from 
a conviction that no advantage can be gained by disturbing the tech- 
nical language of grammar, universally established and understood, 
even for the sake of terms more strictly appropriate. The emphatic 
form of the Present and Imperfect tense is subjoined to the simple 
• form. A Synopsis of the progressive form, in the Indicative mood, 
follows the paradigm of the verb " to be." The section on Derivation 
has been omitted, from a persuasion that it is too brief to be of great 
practical utility, and the subject has been thought of sufficient impor- 
tance to be treated of in a separate work which is already before the 
public* 

The author takes this opportunity of returning his thanks to those 
gentlemen who have kindly examined the work, and favoured him 
with their observations on it. To the hints derived from these, he is 
chiefly indebted for the improvements that appear in this edition. The 
favourable opinion expressed of the work by the most competent 
judges, encourages him to hope that the object he had in view, to 
furnish a simple, concise, and comprehensive manual of English Gram- 
mar, better adapted to the use of academies and common schools 
than any yet published, is now in a good degree attained. 

The publication of the Latin Grammar formerly announced as a 
part of the series, has been delayed, in the hope that some of those 
soon after noticed for publication might render it unnecessary. As 
this hope has not been realized, the work will be resumed and pub- 
lished as soon as possible. The Greek Grammar is now under re- 
vision for a second edition, which will probably be published in the 
course of the summer. 

* Town's Analysis of Derivative words. 



DIRECTIONS FOR USING THIS GRAMMAR. 

This Grammar being designed for the use of the more advanced scholar, as 
well as of the mere beginner, a few suggestions, the result of some experience, 
respecting the mode of using it, may not be improper. In commencing any study, 
the first care of the judicious teacher will be to excite a proper interest in it in 
the minds of his pupils, and to render their progress as easy and pleasant as pos- 
sible. Without this, the easiest and most engaging studies may be rendered 
irksome and disgusting, and all relish for, as well as "progress in them effectually 
prevented. This evil will be avoided, and a proper interest in the study of En 
glish Grammar excited and maintained, if the following course of study be care- 
fully observed : — 

1. Very young pupils, or mere beginners at any age, should be required to stu- 
dy only the leading parts which are generally distinguished in the Grammar by 
a larger type. The subordinate parts in smaller type, together with the whole 
of v) 2; § 19 from No. 6 to 12 ; and the whole of § 21, 23, and 24 should be omit- 
ted till afterwards. And in order to vary the exercise, from ten to twenty or thir- 
ty words of § 32 may be given with each lesson from the beginning, so that the 
whole may be gone through without loss of time, and almost without an effort. 

2. No larger portion should be assigned for each recitation than the class can 
easily master, and till this is done, a new portion should not be given out. 

3. The portion assigned for every new lesson should be read over to the class, 
and explained, if necessary, by familiar remarks and illustrations ; and care 
should be taken that every pupil know, before he is sent to his seat, what he is 
expected to do at the next recitation, and hoia it is to be done. A little pains ' 
taken in this way will be amply rewarded by the spirit and pleasure with which 
the lesson will be studied, and the rapid progress that will be made. 

4. All rules and definitions, together with the more important parts, should 
be accurately committed to memory, and the whole wrought into the under- 
standing as well as the memory of the pupil, by questions and familiar illus- 
trations adapted to his capacity till he has completely mastered it. To aid in 
this, copious Exercises have been introduced throughout, in which the class 
should be drilled till every thing is easy and familiar. In this way a class of or- 
dinary capacity, even of very young pupils, may be carried through to § 39 in the 
space of four or five weeks ; and of those more advanced, in two or three. 

5. The acquisitions made in every new lesson should be rivetted and secured 
by repeated revisals. It takes up but a few minutes, and is attended with very 
great advantage to begin every new lesson, or every other one with a rapid re- 
view of the whole from the beginning, or from such part as the teacher may 
direct. 

6. Having in this way advanced to § 39, the pupil is prepared to commence 
Etymological parsing, for which directions are given in that Section. It is ne- 
cessary he should be expert in this exercise before he enter on Syntax. To aid 
in this, ample directions and exercises are furnished from p. 75 to p. 85. 

7. In the study of Syntax, the same course in general should be pursued as m 
the preceding part. At first, the rule at the top of the page only should be com- 
mitted to memory, and then rendered familiar by the exercises under it. Tl«e 
subordinate rules and observations, with the exercises belonging to them, will 
be studied with more ease and advantage on a subsequent revisal. When this 
has been done, he will be prepared for exercises in Syntactical Parsing and Pro- 
miscuous Exercises in Syntax, of which a great variety is furnished in § 85. 

8. At the same time that the pupil is engaged in the exercisfs just mentioned, 
it will be a proper time to study the whole Grammar in course ; and to take up 
in his progress the parts formerly omitted, which, from the acquirements now- 
made, will be better appreciated and more easily mastered ; and in doing this 
also, repeated revisals should not be neglected. 

The study of English Grammar, prosecuted in this way, will prove both pleas- 
ing and profitable. The pupil, knowing what he is doing, and elated with success, 
will proceed with activity and cheerfulness ; and in a comparatively short ti*»*» 
will find himself a good grammarian. 



INDEX 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PARTI. ORTHOGRAPHY". 

Page. 

Of Letters, 2 

OfSyllables, 2 

Rules for spelling words, ........ 2 

PART II. ETYMOLOGY. 
Words, and their division into Parts of Speech, ... 6,7 

I. Article, of, 8 

Syntax of, . 127 

II. Nouns, different kinds of, 9 

Gender of, 9 

Observations on, 11 

Number, rules for plural, 12 

Nouns irregular in the plural, . . 13 

Observations on, 14 

Cases, 15 

Nominative, construction of, . . 87, 88 

Possessive, how formed j observations on, 17 

Construction of, . . 104, 105 

Objective, governed by active verbs, . SO 

by neuter verbs, . . SO 

by prepositions, . 92 

Declension of, . 16 

Used for adjectives, and adjectives for nouns, . 20 
Construction of, in apposition, .... 102 

III. Adjectives, definition and comparison of, Obs. on, . 18, 19 

Compared irregularly, . . . . .20 

Construction of, . . . . 97, 117 

of comparative & superlative, 114, 115 



X CONTENTS. 

Page. 

IV. Pronouns, definition and division of, .... 21 

Personal, declension of, and observations on, . 22 
Construction of, .... 99 

Relative, how declined and applied, . . .23 
Construction of, .... 100 

Interrogative, how applied, 25 

Adjective, division of, 25 

Possessive, 26 

Distributive, 26 

Construction of, . . • 97 

Demonstrative, ..... 26 

Construction of, . 97, 98 

Indefinite, 27 

V. Verbs, definition and division of, ..... 29 

Concord of, with its nominative, . . .88, 89 
with two nouns, ... 93, 94 
with nominatives of different persons, 95 
with a collective noun, . . .96 

Active, definition of, 29 

Used in a sense allied to the passive, . 32 

Inflexion of, 43 

Government of, 90 

Passive, definition of, 29 

Inflexion of, 52 

When followed by the objective, . . 91 

Neuter, definition and characteristic of, • . 29 

Have no passive ; how made active, . 31 

When used actively, . . . .90 

Construction of, 91 

Auxiliary, what ; observations on, ... 33 
To 6e, inflexion of, .... 48 

Construction of, . . . 89, 103 
Irregular, definition of; list of, ... 60 

Defective, definition of; list of, . • . .65 
Impersonal, of, ...... 65 

Moods, definition of, . . . . .35 

Uses of ; observations on, . . . 35, 36 
Indicative and subjunctive, construction of, 111 
Infinitive, character of, . . . . 37 

Construction of, . . .110 
Tenses, definition, division, and uses of, . . 38 



CONTENTS. 



XI 



Verbs continued. Page, 

Tenses, Observations on ; different forms of, . 39 

Construction of, . . . . .123 

Number and person, 42 



Excercises on active, 47 ; to be, 51 
Participles, definition and uses of, 
Observations on, 

VI. Adverbs, definition and use of, 

Classes of: observations on, . 
Position and construction of, 

VII. Prepositions, definition and use of, list of, . 

Observations and exercises on, 
Construction of, 

VIII. Conjunctions, uses of, list of, 

Observations on, . 
Construction of, 

IX. Interjections, use of, list of, obs.on, 

Construction of, 
Parsing, etymological, definition of, 

Specimens of, . . 
Rules for, and exercises in, 
Syntactical method of, 
Specimen of, 

PART III. SYNTAX 
Syntax, general principles of, parts of, 
Rules of, 

Miscellaneous obs. on certain phrases, 
Improper expressions, a list of, 



56 
. 57 

57 
. 66 

67 
116, 117, 118 

69 

. 70 

92, 119, 120 

. 70 

70 
. 112 

71 
. 119 

71 

73 

75 

. 131 

. 133 



. 86, 87 

from 88 to 130 

. 145 

. 149 



Punctuation, rules for, &c 151 

Abbreviations, . . . . . . ... .157 

Paragraphs and capitals, 158 

Rhetorical divisions of a discourse, . • • • * * 159 

Different kinds of composition, . . . . . • .160 

PART IV. PROSODY. 

Prosody, division of, ,163 

Elocution, • . .163 

Versification, • • .168 

Figures of speech, .175 

Poetic license, . • • • • • .176 

Hints for correct and elegant writing, 180 

Composition, ..,,••»•• 183 



xu 



CONTENTS. 



ORDER OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule I. A verb must agree with its nominative, . 

Special rales under Rule i. 
II. An active verb govern* the objective case, 

Special rules under Rule n. 
Prepositions govern the objective case, . 
Two or more nouns sing, in connexion, 
- taken separately, 



III. 
IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XIT. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 



Page. 

. 88 
89 

. 90 
91 

. 92 
93 

. 94 
95 
96 
97 



A verb with nominatives of different persons, 
A verb with a collective noun, 
Adjectives of number, the pron. this and that, 
When two persons or things are contrasted, &c. 98 
Pronouns agree with the nouns, &c. . . 99 
The relative agrees with its antecedent, . . 100 
Special rales and observations under Rule xi. 101 
Substantives signifying the same thing, &c. . 102 
A verb may have the same case after it as before, 1 03 

The possessive case, 104- 

When the present participle is used as a noun, 107 
The present participle with an article before it, 108 
The perfect participle is used after have and be, 109 
One verb governs another in the infinitive, 110 

The subjunctive mood, Ill 

Conjunctions couple the same moods and 

tenses, &c. 112 

XXI. Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunct. 113 

XXII. Comparative degree and the pronoun other, 114 
XXIIT. Double comparatives and superlatives, . 115 

XXIV. Adverbs modify verbs, &c. , 116 

XXV. Adverbs are for the most part placed, &c. 117 

XXVI. Two negatives in the same sentence, . .118 

XXVII. Prepositions before names of places, . . 119 

XXVIII. Certain words and phrases must be followed, &c. 120 

XXIX. In the use of verbs, &c. ; the order of time, &c. 123 

XXX. When a member of a sentence refers to two 

different clauses, it should be, &c. . .125 

XXXI. Case absolute, 126 

XXXII. The article ^,&c .127 

XXXIII. An ellipsis is admissible when, &c. . . 129 

XXXIV. An ellipsis is not allowable when, &c. • .130 
Miscellaneous observations, . . 145 



GRAMMAR. 



Grammar is both a Science and an Art. 

As a Science, it investigates the principles of language 
in general. When thus used, it is denominated General 
or Universal Grammar ; and sometimes Comparative 
Grammar. 

As an Art, it teaches the right method of applying these 
principles to a particular language, so as thereby to express 
our thoughts in a correct and proper manner, according to 
established usage. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

, English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English Language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts ; namely, Orthogra- 
phy ', Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

PART FIRST. 
§ 1. ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of Let- 
ters, and the correct method of spelling words. 

A Letter is a character representing a particular sound of the hu- 
man voice. 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 2. 

There are Tiventy-six Letters in English. 

Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 

A Voioel is a letter which represents a simple sound. The Vowels 
are, a, e, i, o, u; and to and y, when they do not begin a syllable. 

A Consonant is a letter that cannot be sounded without the help of 
a vowel. The Consonants are, b, c, d,f,g, h, j, k, I, m, », p, q, r, s, t, 
v, x, z; and iv and y, when they begin a syllable. 

A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound ; as, on in out. 

A proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded ; 
as, oy in boy, ou in round, or oi in oil. 

An improper Diphthong is one in which only one of the vowels is 
sounded ; as, oa in boat. 

A Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound ; as, eau'm 
beauty. 

A Syllable is a distinct sound forming the whole of a 
word, as, far ; or so much of it as can be sounded at 
once, as, far in farmer. 

A Monosyllable is a word of one syllable ; as, fox, dog. 

A Dissyllable is a word of two syllables ; as, farmer. 

A Trissyllable is a word of three syllables ; as, butterfly. 

A Polysyllable is a word of many syllables. 

FOJLES FOR. THE DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

1. Words have as many syllables as they contain distinct sounds, 
and must be divided as the sounds are heard in correct pronuncia- 
tion ; as, re-pub-lUcan, de-light, ex-am-ine, abstain. 

2. Grammatical and othe. particular terminations are generally se- 
parated ; as, teach-est, teach-ing, teach-er. 

§ 2. SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its 
proper letters, and rightly dividing it into syllables 

RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending with /, I, or s, preceded by a 



§ 2. ORTHOGRAPHY. 3 

single vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, 
pass. 

Exceptions. Of, if, as, is, has, was, his, gas, yes, this, 
us, thus, pus. 

RULE II. 

Words ending with any consonant except f, I, or s, 
do not double the final letter. 

Exceptions. Add, bunn, butt, buzz ; ebb, egg, err ; 
inn, odd, purr. 

RULE III. 

Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y 
into i before an additional letter or syllable ; as, spy, spies ; 
happy, happier, happiest ; carry, carrier, carried ; fancy, 
fanciful. 

Exception. But y is not changed before ing ; as deny, 
denying. 

Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y 
unchanged ; as, hoy, hoys, boyish, boyhood. 

Exceptions. Lay, pay, say, make, laid, paid, said. 

RULE IV. 

Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a vowel, dou- 
ble that consonant before an additional syllable beginning 
with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; admit, admittance, ad- 
mitted. Except x and 1c, which are never doubled. 

But when a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on 
the last syllable, the consonant is not doubled ; as, boil, 
boiling, boiler ; I visit, I visited. Except travel, traveller, 
and a few others which usage has sanctioned. 

rule v. 
Words ending with II generally drop one I before the 
terminations ness, less, ly and fid ; as, fidness, sMUess, 
fully, skilful. 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 2. 

But words ending^ in any other double letter, preserve 
the letter double before these terminations ; as, harmless- 
ness, stiffly, &c. 

RULE vi„ 

Silent e is preserved before the terminations, ment, less, 
ly, and ful ; as, paleness, peaceful, abatement, &c. 

Exceptions. Duly, truly, awful, judgment, abridg- 
ment, acknowledgment, lodgment, argument, are excepted. 

RULE VII. 

Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning with a 
vowel ; as slave, slavish ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible ; 
lodge, lodging. 

Exceptions. Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their 
compounds before able, retain e ; as, blameable, moveable, 
&c. 

Words ending in ge and ce retain e before able in order 
to preserve the soft sound of g and c ; as changeable, 
peaceable. For the same reason we have singeing and 
swingeing. 

Note. The letters ie at the end of a word, are changed into y be- 
fore ing ; as, die, dying. 

RULE VIII. 

Simple words ending in II, generally drop one I when 
joined to other words ; as, full, handful ; all, also ; tell, 
foretel. But other compounded words are generally 
spelled in the same manner as the simple words of which 
they are formed ; as, glasshouse, thereby. 

EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES. 

RULE I. 

Correct the following words: — mil, fil, hil, tal, las, staf, hass, thuss, 
thiss, mis, tos, bul, gras. 

RULE II. 

Correct the following words : — mapp, rumm, runn, ratt, hatt, bagg, 
od, buz. 



§ 2. ORTHOGRAPHY. 5 

RULE HI. 

Add es to the following nouns : — fly, cry, beauty, glory, bounty, 
frailty, duty, copy. 

Add es, eth or est, to the following verbs : — deny, decry, defy, tarry, 
spy, try, fly, glory, imply, supply. 

Add ing to the same. 

Compare the following adjectives by adding er and est : — ugly, has- 
ty, portly, happy, comely, lazy, holy. 

Correct the following words : — comelyness, uglyness, hastyness, 
beautyful, dutyful, portraid, dismaied, plaiful. 

Write the plural of the following words by adding s : — day, play, 
ray, valley, toy, joy, bay. 

RULE IV. 

Add ing or ed to the following verbs : — scan, blot, drag, brag, flog, 
fan, slip, split, drum ; admit, compel, concur, distil, extol, permit, an- 
nul, commit ; suffer, counsel, cover, parcel, cudgel, libel, travel ; toil, 
boil, soil, coin. 

rule v. 
Add ness, less, or ly, to the following words: — stiff) careless, 
thoughtless, dull, skill, full, harmless. 
Add ful to the following words : — distress, success, will, skill. 

RULE VI. 

Correct the following words : — sedatness, lovly, entirly, securly, 
wastful, hoarsness, aweful, truely, sincerly, ceasless ; abridgement, 
arrangment, allurment, abatment, judgement. 

RULE VII. 

Correct the following words : — striveing, thriveing, droneish, dis- 
penseing, lodgeing, desireable, excuseable, reverseible, forceible, 
chargable, servicable, changable, senseible, clotheing, shineing, lodge- 
ing, ruling, valueable. 

RULE VIII. 

Correct the following words : — allso, dunghill, fullfilling, allways, 
hurtfull, wellcome. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES. 

Mapp, flys, denyed, acquiting, parcelling, mudd, bul, staf, drone- 
ish, mos, ad, eg, boies, buz, exceling, yess, despiseing, sprigg, hatt, 
puf, kil, instiling, uglyer, closly, skys, sett, glorifiing, lovelyer, admit- 
ed, flogg, floging, hil, tryed, harmlesness, stifly, chily, ceasless, re- 

2* 



® ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §3. 

verseible, merryment, hipp, judgement, sirr, mis, arangment, tos ? 
knaveish, regaleing 



PART SECOND. 
§ 3. ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of 
words, their various modifications, and their de 
rivations. 

Words are certain articulate sounds used by 
common consent as signs of our ideas. 

1. Words, in respect of their Formation, are 
either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Com- 
pound. 

A Primitive word is one that can not ho traced to any simpler word 
in the language ; as, boy, just, father. 

A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word ; as, 
boyish, justice, fatherly, 

A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other word ; 
as, man, house, city. 

A Compound word is one that is made up of two or more simple 
words ; as, manhood, horseman: 

2. Words, in respect of Form, are either De- 
clinable or Indeclinable. 

A Declinable word is one which undergoes certain changes of form 
or termination, to express the different relations of gender, number, 
case, person, &c. usually termed in Grammar Accidents ; as, man, 
men ; love, loves, loved. 

An Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of form ; 
as, good, some, perhaps. 

3. In respect of Signification and Use, words are 
divided into different classes, called 






§ 3. ETYMOLOGY. 7 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The Parts of Speech in the English language are 
nine, viz. The Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, 
Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection and Con- 
junction. 

Of these the Noun, Pronoun, and Verb are de- 
clined, the rest are indeclinable. 

QUESTIONS* 

What is English Grammar? Into hoiv many parts is it divided? 
Mention them. What is Orthography? What is a letter? How 
many letters are there in English? How are they divided? What 
is a vowel ? — a consonant ? Name the vowels. When are ip and y 
vowels? When consonants? What is a diphthong? — a proper 
diphthong? — an improper diphthong? — a triphthong? What is a 
Syllable ? What is a loord of one Syllable termed ? — of two ? — of 
three ? — of four or more ? 

(§ 2.) What is spelling ? Repeat the rules. 

(§3.) What does Etymology treat of ? What are words? How 
may words be classed in respect of their Formation ? What is a pri- 
mitive word? — a derivative word? — a simple word? — a compound 
word? Hoio may w or ds be classed in respect of Form? What is a 
declinable word? — an indeclinable word? How many parts of 
speech are there in English ? Name them. Which of these are de- 
clinable ? Which are iiideclinable ? 

* The list of questions subjoined at intervals is not intended for the use, much 
Jess for the direction, of the teacher, who, if competent, will always put such 
questions to the pupil as will enable him to ascertain whether he understands 
what he has studied, or to draw his attention to any particular point which he 
may wish to illustrate at greater length. The principal design of their insertion 
is to exercise the judgment of the pupil in his private studies in finding appro- 
priate answers, — to enable him the better to prepare his lessons by suggesting 
such questions as are likely to be asked, — and to furnish a test whether he is 
sufficiently prepared for recitation, which he cannot be unless he can furnish a 
correct and prompt answer to the questions proposed. They may also prove use- 
ful in schools conducted on the monitorial plan as a guide to the Monitor. That 
the correct answer may be more readily found, the sections (§) to which the 
questions refer are marked ; those which refer to the text or large print, are 
printed in Italics ; and those which refer to the notes and observations, in thf> 
ordinary Roman letter. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 4. 

§ 4. I. OF THE ARTICLES. 

An ARTICLE is a word put before a noun, to show 
the extent of its meaning ; as, a man, the man. 

There are two Articles, A or AN, and THE. 

A or AN is called the Indefinite Article, because 
it does not point out a particular person or thing ; 
as, A king ; that is, any king. 

THE is called the Definite Article, because it re- 
fers to a particular person or thing ; as, The king ; 
i. e. some particular king. 

A noun without an Article to limit it is taken in 
its widest sense ; as, Man is mortal, i. e. All man- 
kind : — Or in an indefinite sense; as, There are 
men destitute of all shame, i. e. some men. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. A is used before a Consonant ; as, a book. 
An is used before a Vowel or silent h ; as, an age, 
an hour. But 

A and not An is used before u long, and the diphthong ew, because 
these letters have, combined with their sound, the power of initial y ; 
thus, a unit, a use, a eulogy. On the other hand, Jin is used before 
words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the second 
syllable ; as, an heroic action, an historical account ; because the h in 
such words is but slightly sounded. 

2. A or An is used before nouns in the singular number only. The 
is used before nouns in both numbers, and sometimes before adverbs 
in the comparative and superlative degree; as, The more I study 
Grammar, the better I like it 

QUESTIONS. 
(§4.) What is an article ? How many articles are there ? Name 
them. Why is a or an called indefinite ? Why is the called definite ? 
In what sense is a noun vnthout an article taken ? (Obs.) When is 
a used ? When is an used ? When is a used before a vowel ? When 
is an used before h sounded ? Is a or an used before singular or plu- 
ral nouns ? How is the used ? 



§ 5, 6. ETYMOLOGY. 9 

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLES. 

Prefix the Indefinite article to the words, river, hope, 
army, hermit, infant, uncle, humour, usurper, hostler, wish, 
youth, umbrage, oyster, herb, thought, honour, elephant, 
husband. 

Correct what follows, and give a reason for the change. 
A inkstand, an handful, a article, a humble man, an ewe, 
a anchor, an useful book, an history, an humorous tale, an 
hedge, an union. 

§ 5. II. OF NOUNS. 

A Noun is the name of a thing ; as, John, Lon- 
don, book. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and 
Common. 

A Proper Noun is the name applied to an indivi- 
dual as; Washington Thomas, Albany, Hudson. 

A Common Noun is a name applicable to all 
things of the same kind ; as, chair, table, book. 

Note. Proper nouns become common by having an article pre- 
fixed to them ; as, He is the Cicero of his age. 

Nouns signifying many in the singular number, are also called Col- 
lective Nouns ; as, Army, multitude. 

The names of virtues, vices, and qualities, are called Abstract 
Nouns; as, Piety, wickedness, ivisdom. 

Nouns which express a small one of the kind are called Diminutive 
Nouns. They are formed by adding the syllable -kin, ock, -el, -ling, 
to the primitive ; as, lambkin, hillock, satchel, gosling, from lamb, hill, 
sack, goose. 

Nouns are varied by Gender, Number, and Case, 

§ 6. OF GENDER. 

Gender means the distinction of nouns with re 
gard to sex. There are three Genders, the Mascu 
line. Feminine and Neuter. 



10 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§6. 



The Masculine Gender denotes the male sex ; 
as, A man, a boy. 

The Feminine Gender denotes the female sex : 
as, A ivoman, a girl. 

The Neuter Gender denotes whatever is without 



sex ; as 



Milk. 



There are three ways of distinguishing the sex. 
I. By different words ; 



as, 



Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor 


maid 


Horse 


mare 


Beau 


belle 


Husband 


wife 


Boar 


sow 


King 


queen 


Boy 


girl 


Lad 


lass 


Brother 


sister 


Lord 


lady 


Buck 


doe 


Man 


woman 


Bull 


cow 


Master 


mistress 


Bullock, ox, 


i heifer 


Melter 


spawner 


or steer 


Nephew 


niece 


Cock 


hen 


Ram, buck 


ewe 


Colt 
Dog 


filly 
bitch 


Singer 


songstress, or 
singer 


Drake 


duck 


Sloven 


slut 


Earl 


countess 


Son 


daughter 


Father 


mother 


Stag 


hind 


Friar 


nun 


Uncle 


aunt 


Grander 


goose 


Wizzard 


witch 


Hart 


roe 


Sir 


Madam 


2. By a difference of Termination ; as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female, 


Abbot 


abbes3 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Actor 


actress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Count 


countess 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Duke 


dutchess 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Elector 


electress 


Author (often) 


authoress 


Emperor 


empress 


Baron 


baroness 


Enchanter 


enchantress 



9* 


ETYMOLOGY. 


1 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female. 


Executor 


executrix 


Prince 


princess 


Governor 


governess 


Prior 


prioress 


Heir 


heiress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Hero 


heroine 


Protector 


protectress 


Hunter 


huntress 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Host 


hostess 


Songster 


songstress 


Jew- 


Jewess 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Landgrave 


landgravine 


Sultan 


C sultana, or sul- 


Lion 


lioness 




( taness 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Tiger 


tigress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Traitor 


traitress 


Patron 


patroness 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Peer 


peeress 


Viscount 


viscountess 


Poet 


poetess 


Votary 


votaress 


Priest 


priestess 


Widower 


widow 



3. By prefixing another word ; as, 

A cock sparrow. A hen sparrow 



A he goat. 
A man servant 
A male child. 
Male descendants. 



A she goat. 
A maid servant 
A female child. 
Female descendants. 



§7. OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER. 

1. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine; such as, parent, 
child, cousin, infant, servant, neighbor. Such are sometimes said to be 
of the common gender. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter are converted by a figure of speech 
into the masculine or feminine; as when we say of the sun, He is set- 
ting ; — of the moon, She is eclipsed ; and of a ship, She sails. 

3. In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or not re- 
garded, we assign the masculine gender to. those distinguished for 
boldness, fidelity, generosity, size, strength, &c, as the dog, the horse, 
the elephant. Thus we say, " The dog is remarkably various in his spe- 
cies." On the other hand, we assign the feminine gender to animals 
characterized by weakness and timidity ; as, the hare, the cat, &c, 
thus, " The cat, as she beholds the light, draws the bail of her eye 
small and long." 

4. In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size, we fre- 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §8. 

quently consider thern devoid of sex. Thus, of an infant, we say ie It 
is a lovely creature ;" — of a cat, " It is cruel to its enemy." 

5. When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms ; as, 
shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term has also a general meaning, 
expressing both male and female, and is always to be used when the 
office, occupation, profession, &c, and not the sex of the individual, is 
chiefly to be expressed. The feminine term is used only when thedis 
crimination of sex is indispensably necessary. Thus, when it is said 
" the Poets of this country are distinguished by correctness of taste," 
the term "Poet" clearly includes both male and female writers of 
poetry. 

§ 8. OF NUMBER. 

Number is that property of a noun by which it 
expresses one, or more than one. Nouns have two 
numbers, the Singular and the Plural. The Sin- 
gular denotes one ; the Plural more than one. 

GENERAL RULE. 

The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the 
singular, as book, books. 

SPECIAL RULES. 

1. Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, x, or o, form the plural 
by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; brush, brushes ; 
match, matches ; fox, foxes ; hero, heroes. 

Exc. Nouns in eo and to, with junto, canto, tyro, grotto, portico, 
solo, and quarto, have s only ; as, cameo, cameos ; folio, folios ; junto, 
juntos, &c. Also nouns in ch sounding k ; as, monarch, monarchs. 

2. Nouns in y after a consonant, change y into ies 
in the plural ; as, lady, ladies. 

Nouns in y after a vowel, follow the general rule ; 
as day, days. § 2. R. III. 

3. Nouns infovfe, change/ or fe into ves in the 
plural ; as, loaf, loaves ; life, lives. 

Exc. Dwarf, scarf, wharf 5 brief, chief, grief; kerchief, handkerchief, 



§ 9. ETYMOLOGY, 13 

mischief; gulf, turf, surf; — fife, strife; — proof, hoof, roof, reproof, follow 
the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in 5 ; as, muff, 
muffs ; except staff, which has sometimes staves, 

EXERCISES ON NUMBER. 

Give the plural, and the rule for forming it, of — Fox, book, 
leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach, inch, 
sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, 
church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato, 
peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, 
city, difficulty, distress, wolf. 

Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, 
enemy ; an army, a vale, an ant, a valley, the hill, the sea, 
a key, a toy, monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, em- 
bryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, staff, muff, cliff, whiff, cuff, 
ruff. 

Of what number is — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, 
hills, river, scenes, stars, planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, 
glass, state, foxes, house, prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, 
churches, glove, silk, skies, berries, peach ? 

§ 9. NOUNS IRREGULAR IN THE PLURAL. 

Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural ; such as, 

Singular, Plural. 

Tooth teeth 

Goose geese 

Mouse mice 

Louse lice 

Penny pence 

But pennyj meaning the coin, has the plural pennies. 

Note. Words compounded of man, woman, &c. form the plural 
like the simple word ; as Footman, footmen ; Boatman, boatmen ; 
Washerwoman, icasherivomen, &c. 

Singular. Plural. 

Brother (one of the same family) brothers 

Brother (one of the same society) brethren 
3 



Singvlar. 


Plural. 


Man 


men 


Woman 


women 


Child 


children 


Foot 


feet 


Ox 


oxen 



14 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§10. 



Sow or swine 
Die (for gaming) 
Die (for coining) 
Aid-de-camp 
Court-martial 
Cousin-german 
Father-in-law, &c. 



sows or swine 

dice 

dies 

aids-de-camp 

courts-martial 

cousins-german 

fathers-in-law, &c. 



Words from foreign languages sometimes retain their original plu- 
ral. Asa general rule, nouns in um oz on have a in the plural j but 
those in is in the singular, change it into es in the plural. The fol- 
lowing are the most common : 



Anirnalculum 


animalcula 


Genius (an aerial ) 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


spirit) 


£ genu 


Apex 


apices 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Appendix 


5 appendixes 
( appendices 


Ignis fatuus 


ignes fatui 


Index (a pointer) indexes 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Index (in algebra) indices 


Automaton 


automata 


Lamina 


laminae 


Axis 


axes 


Magus 


magi 


Basis 


bases 


Memorandum 


memoranda 


Calx 


calces 


Metamorphosis metamorphoses 


Cherub 


( cherubim 
( cherubs 


Monsieur 


messieurs 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Crisis 


crises 


Radius 


radii 


Criterion 


criteria 


Stamen 


stamina 


Datum 


data 


Seraph 


C seraphs 
£ seraphim 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Stratum 


strata 


Emphasis 


emphases 


Vertex 


vertices 


Encomium 


5 encomia 
( encomiums 


Vortex 


vortices 




Virtuoso 


virtuosi 


Erratum 


errata 


Mr (master) 


Messrs (mes- 


Focus 


foci 




sieurs) 


Genus 


genera 







§ 10. OBSERVATIONS ON NUMBER. 



1. Proper names have the plural, only when they refer to a race or 
family ; as, the Stewarts, the Campbells; or to several persons of the 



ip 10. ETYMOLOGY. 15 

same name ; as, the twelve Ccesars, the two Mr. Bells, the two Miss 
Browns. But without the numeral, or in addressing letters in which 
both or all are equally concerned, and also when the names are dif- 
ferent, we pluralize the title (Mr. or Miss) ; as, Misses Brown, Messrs. 
Webster & Skinner. See § 60, Rem. 1. 

2. Names of metals, virtues, vices, and things that are weighed or 
measured, are for the most part confined to the singular number; as 
gold, meekness, temperance., bread, beer, beef, &c. Except when dif- 
ferent sorts are meant ; as, icihes, teas, &c. 

3. Some nouns are used in the plural only ; such as annals, anti- 
podes, literati, credenda, minutiae, banditti, data; and things consisting 
of two parts, as bellows, scissors, pliers, tongs, lungs, &c. : or of more 
than two, as ashes, embers, entrails, clothes, &c. 

Note. For the singular of literati, the expression, " one of the literati,^ 
is used ; and bandit is sometimes used as the singular of banditti. 

4. Some nouns are alike in both numbers ; as hose, deer, sheep, swine, 
irout. salmon, tench; apparatus, hiatus, series, species; brace, dozen, 
head, couple, score, pair, hundred, thousand, &c 

Note. Brace, dozen, &c. have sometimes a plural form ; as, He 
bought partridges in braces, and books in scores and dozens. Cannon, 
shot, and sail, are used in a plural sense. Foot, horse, infantry, and 
sometimes cavalry, meaning bodies of foot, &c. are construed with a 
plural verb. The singular of sheep, deer, &c. is distinguished by 
the article a ; as, a sheep, a deer. 

5. Some words are plural in form, but in construction either singu- 
lar or plural; such as amends, means, news, riches, pains; and the 
names of certain sciences, as mathematics, metaphysics, ethics, politics, 
optics, &c. 

Note. Means, when it points out the instrumentality of one agent, 
is construed as singular ; — of more than one, as plural. Mean, in the 
singular form, is commonly used to signify a middle between two ex- 
tremes. Neios is now generally construed in the singular number. 
Alms (almesse, Fr.) is properly singular, though ending in s, and is 
perhaps always so used. Riches (richesse, Fr.) of similar derivation, 
is singular or plural. Thanks is considered a plural noun, though 
used to denote one expression of gratitude. Thank occurs in the New 
Testament : " What thank have ye ?" 

EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR NOUNS AND OBSERVATIONS, &C. 

Give the plural of — Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox, child. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §11. 

father-in-law, son-in-law, brother ; erratum, radius, lamina, 
automaton, phenomenon, stratum, axis, ellipsis, stamen, 
index, cherub, seraph. 

Of what number is — Dice, arcana, fishermen, geese, 
dormice, alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, 
woman, child, court-martial, apparatus, minutise, genii, 
geniuses, indices, indexes, mathematics, Matthew, James, 
John? 

§ 11. OF THE CASES OF NOUNS. 

Case is the state or condition of a noun with re- 
spect to the other words in a sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, viz. the Nominative, 
Possessive, and Objective. 

The Nominative case expresses that of which 
something is said or declared ; as, the sun shines. 

The Possessive denotes that to which something 
belongs ; as, the lady's fan. 

The Objective denotes the object of some action 
or relation ; as, James assists Thomas ; they live in 
Albany. 

The nominative and objective are alike. 

The possessive singular is formed by adding an 
apostrophe and s to the nominative ; as, John's. 

When the plural ends in s, the possessive is form- 
ed by adding an apostrophe only. 

NOUNS ARE THUS DECLINED : 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Lady Ladies John 

Poss. Lady's Ladies' John's 

Obj. Lady Ladies John 

Proper names generally want the plural. See § 10, 1. 



§ 12. ETYMOLOGY. 17 

§ 12. OBSERVATIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE. 

1. The apostrophe and s ('s) is an abbreviation for is, the termina- 
tion of the old English genitive; thus, " the king's crown," was an- 
ciently written, " the kingis crown." 

2. When the nominative singular ends in ss, or in letters of similar 
sound, the s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, in order to 
avoid too close a succession of hissing sounds ; as, " for goodness' 
sake ;" " for conscience' sake." This, however, is seldom if ever done 
unless the word following the possessive begins with s.; thus we do 
not say, " the prince' feather," but, " the prince's feather." 

3. The relation expressed by the possessive case, is in general the 
same with that expressed by the word of; thus r " the rage of the ty- 
rant," " the death of the prince," are equivalent to " the tyrant's rage," 
"the prince's death." Hence when the use of the possessive would 
appear stiff, it is better to use the preposition of, or some equivalent 
expression instead of it ; as, " the satellites of Jupiter," " the length oi 
the day," "the garden wall," for "Jupiter's satellites," "the day's 
length," "the garden's wall." Sometimes, however, the idea ex- 
pressed by the preposition of, with the objective, is different from that 
expressed by the possessive ; thus, " a picture of the king," and " the 
king's picture," express different ideas : the first means " a portrait of 
the king ;" the last, " a picture belonging to the king." 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a noun or substantive 7 -How many kinds of nouns are there ? 
What is a proper noun ? — a common noun ? How do proper nouns be- 
come common ? "What are collective nouns? — abstract nouns? — di- 
minutive nouns ? How are nouns varied ? 

(§ 6.) What is gender ? How many genders are there ? What does 
the masculine gender denote ? — the feminine ? — the neuter ? Mention the 
different ways of distinguishing the sex. 

(§ 7.) What is the common gender? How 4© neuter nouns become 
masculine or feminine? Give an instance. When the sex of animals 
is not known, what gender do we assign to those distinguished for 
boldness, fidelity, strength, &c. ? — to those characterized by weakness, 
timidity, and the like? — to animals of inferior size? 

(§8.) What is meant by number ? How many numbers are there ? 
What does the singular denote ? — the plural ? Hoxo is the plural com" 
monly formed ? When is the plural formed by adding es ? How do nouns 
in y after a consonant, form the plural ?— -after a vowel ? — nouns in (or 
fe? 

3* B 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 13. 

(§ 9.) Mention some nouns that are irregular in the formation of the 
plural. How do words from foreign languages, in urn, commonly form 
the plural ? — in on ? — in is ? 

(§ 10.) When have proper names the plural? What sort of nouns 
are for the most part used in the singular ? Mention some nouns used 
in the plural only ; — some alike in both numbers. Mention some nouns 
plural in form, but singular or plural in construction. When is means 
construed with a singular verb ? — when with a plural verb ? 

(§11.) What is case? How many cases have nouns? name them. 
What does the nominative denote ? — the possessive ? — the objective ? 
Which two cases are alike ? How is the possessive singidar usually 
formed ? — the possessive plural ? Decline lady, John, &c. 

(§ 12.) For what is 9 s an abbreviation? When does the possessive 
singular omit the 5 after the apostrophe ? What form of expression is 
equivalent to the possessive ? 

EXERCISES ON GENDER, NUMBER AND CASE.* 

Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, 
hats, sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, 
echo, ox's horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, 
grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's boots, Robert's 
shoe, horse, bridle. 

§ 13. III. OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

1. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to 
express its quality ; as, a good boy. 

2. Adjectives have three degrees of comparison ; 
namely, the Positive, Comparative, and Superla- 
tive. 

The Positive expresses a quality simply : The Comparative asserla 

* Note. In using the above exercises, it will save much time, which is very 
important in a large school, if the pupil be taught to express all that is necessary 
in parsing these or other words, thus : Father, a noun, masculine, singular, the 
nominative ; Mothers, a noun, feminine, singular, the possessive. It will also 
be a profitable exercise for him to assign a reason for every part of his descrip- 
tion, thus : Father, a noun, because the name of an object ; masculine, because 
it denotes the male sex ; singular, because it denotes but one ; plural, fathers— 
Rule, "The plural is commonly formed by adding s to the singular." 



§ 13. ETYMOLOGY. 19 

it in a higher or lower degree in one object than in another : And the 
Superlative, in the highest or lowest degree compared with several ; 
thus, Gold is heavier than silver; It is the most precious of the metals. 

3. In adjectives of one syllable, the Comparative 
is formed by adding -er to the positive : and the Su- 
perlative by adding -est ; as, stveet, sweeter ', sweetest. 
Adjectives of move than one syllable are compared 
by prefixing move and most to the positive ; as, nu- 
merous^ more numerous^ most numerous. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Dissyllables in le after a mute, are generally compared by er 
and est : as, able, abler, ablest. Dissyllables in y change y into i, be- 
fore er and -est as, happy, happier, happiest. But y with a vowel be- 
fore it, is not changed ; as, gay, gayer, gayest. § 2, Rule in. 

2. Some adjectives form the superlative by adding most to the end 
of the word; as, upper, uppermost. So, undermost, foremost, hind- 
most, utmost. 

3. When the positive ends in a simple consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est ; as hot, hotter, 
hottest. § 2, Rule iv. 

4. Some adjectives do not admit of comparison, viz: 

1. Such as denote number; as, one, two ; — third, fourth. 

2. 'figure or shape ; as, circular, square. 

3, posture or position; as, perpendicular, horizontal. 

4. Those of an absolute or superlative signification ; as, trice, perfect, 

universal, chief, extreme, &c. 

5. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, &c. though 
they involve the idea of comparison, are not to be considered as in the 
comparative degree, any more than such adjectives as preferable, 
previous, &c. They neither have the form of the comparative, nor 
are they construed with than after them, as comparatives in English 
uniformly are. See Syntax, § 71, Rule xxn. 

6. The superlative degree implying comparison, is usually preceded 
by the definite article. When preceded by the indefinite article, it does 
not imply comparison, but eminence; as, "he is a most distinguished 
man." The same thing is expressed by prefixing the adverb very, ex- 
ceedingly, and the like ; which is called the superlative of eminence. 

7. Without implying comparison, the signification of the positive is 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMIAS. 



§14. 



sometimes lessened by the termination ish ; as, white, whitish ; black, 
blackish. These may properly be called diminutive adjectives. The 
adverb rather, expresses a small degree of the quality j as, rather 
little. 

8. Nouns become adjectives when they are used to express the 
quality of other nouns ; as, gold ring, silver cup, sea water. 

9. On the contrary, adjectives are often used as nouns ; as, "God 
rewards the good, and punishes the bad." " The virtuous are the 
most happy." Adjectives thus used are usually preceded by the de- 
finite article ; and when applied to persons, are considered plural. 
§ 40, Rule vii. 

10. Adjectives which express number, are called Numeral adjec- 
tives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and Ordinal. The cardinal 
answer the question, "how many V' and are one, two, three, four, five, 
six, &,e. The ordinal answer the question, "which of the number ?" 
They are first, second, third, fourth, &c. 



§ 14. Adjectives Compared Irregularly. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good 


better 




best 


Bad, evil or ill 


worse 




worst 


Little 


less 




least 


Much or many 


more 




most 


Late 


later 




latest or last 


Near 


nearer 




nearest or next 


Far 


farther 




farthest 


Fore 


former 




foremost or first 


Old 


older or 


elder 


oldest or eldest 



Obs. Much is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to 
those that are numbered. Elder and eldest, to persons only ; older and 
oldest, either to persons or things. 

QUESTIONS. 
- (§ 13 & 14.) What is an adjective ? How many degrees of compari- 
son are there ? — name them. What does the positive express ? — the 
comparative ? — the superlative ? How are adjectives of one syllable 
compared ? — of more than one ? 
(Obs.) How are dissyllables in le, after a mute, compared ? — dis- 



§ 15 ETYMOLOGY. 21 

syllables in y ? What superlatives are formed by adding most to the 
end of the word ? What words double the final consonant before er 
and est ? What adjectives do not admit of comparison ? Of what 
degree are superior, inferior, interior, &c. ? What does the superla- 
tive imply when preceded by the definite article ? — by the indefinite ? 
What is the force of the termination ish ? What are adjectives in ish 
called ? When are nouns used as adjectives ? Are adjectives ever 
used as nouns?— give an example* Of what number are they 
when applied to persons ? What are numeral adjectives ? Name 
the cardinal ; — the ordinal. What do the cardinal express? — the or- 
dinal ? What adjectives are compared irregularly ? What is much 
applied to? many ? — elder and eldest ? — older and oldest ? 

EXERCISES. 

Of what degree of comparison is — Sweet, kinder, warm- 
est, prompt, firmest, bright, high, cold, nobler, broader, 
bravest, more pleasant, most desirable, softer. 

Compare — Great, small, rough, smooth, happy, noble, 
gay, good, little, much, worthless, ambitious, old, young. 

EXERCISES ON THE ARTICLE, NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 

A good man ; a kind heart ; a clear sky ; the benevo- 
lent lady ; the highest hill ; a skilful artist ; an older com- 
panion ; man's chief concern ; a lady's lapdog ; most 
splendid talents ; the liveliest disposition ; a pleasant tem- 
per ; the raging billows ; temples magnificent ; silent 
shades ; excellent weather ; a loftier tower ; a happier dis- 
position. 

§ 15. IV. OF THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies. 

Pronouns may be divided into three classes ; Per- 
sonal, Relative, and Adjective. The personal pro- 
nouns are, I, thou, he, she, it. They are thus de- 
clined : 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 15 







SINGULAR. 






PLURAL 








Nom. Poss.* 


Obj. 


Nom. 


Poss.* 


Obj. 


1. 


m. or/. 


I mine 


me 


We 


ours 


us 


2. 


m. or/. 


Thou thine 


thee 


You 


yours 


you 


i 


masc. 


He his 


him 


They 


theirs 


them 


3e 


fern. 


She hers 


her 


They 


theirs 


them 


3, 


neut. 


It its 


it 


They 


theirs 


them 



OBSERVATIONS ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

1. lis the first person, and denotes the speaker. 
Thou is the second, and denotes the person spoken 
to. He, she, and it, are of the third person, and 
denote the person or thing spoken of. So also of 
their plurals, we, you, (ye), they. 

2. Myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself, with 
their plurals ourselves, yourselves, themselves, may 
be called Compound personal pronouns : They are 
used in the nominative and objective cases. In the 
nominative they are emphatic, and are added to 
their respective personal pronouns, or are used in- 
stead of them; as, " I myself did it ;" " himself shall 
come." In the objective they are reflexive, showing 
that the agent is also the object of his own act ; as, 
" Judas went and hanged himself" 

3. In proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like, we is 
frequently applied to one person. 

4. In addressing persons, you is commonly put both for the singular 
and the plural, and has always a plural verb. Thou is used only in ad- 
dresses to the Deity, or any important object in nature ; or to mark 
special emphasis, or, in the language of contempt. The plural form 
ye is now but seldom used. 

5. The pronoun it, besides its use as the neuter pronoun of the third 
person, is also used indefinitely with the verb to be in the third person 

* See $ 18, 1. Obs. 1. 



§ 16. ETYMOLOGY. 23 

singular, for all genders, numbers, and persons ; as, It is I, it is ive, 
it is you, it is they ; — It icas she, &c. 

6. Hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, should never be written her's, iVs, 
cur's, your's, their's; for the final s is not used on account of the go- 
vernment of the noun understood, but because the noun is omitted. 
We cannot say her's book, but her book, or, that book is hers. 

7. The personal pronouns may be parsed briefly thus ; I, the first 
personal pronoun, masculine (or feminine), singular, the nomina- 
tive. His, the third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the pos- 
sessive, &c. 

QUESTIONS. 

§ 15. What is a pronoun ? Name the classes into which they are di- 
vided. Name the personal pronouns. Decline them. Of what person 
is I? — thou ? — he, she, it ? What does the first person denote ? — the se- 
cond? — the third? To what class do myself, thyself, tyc. belong? In 
what cases are they used ? How are they applied in the nominative 7- 
in the objective ? Hoio is you applied ? — thou ? — it ? 

EXERCISES ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
I, thou, we, me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, 
them, its, theirs, you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, I, me, 
them, us, we. 

§ 16. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. A Relative Pronoun is a word that relates to 
a noun or pronoun before it, called the antecedent ; 
as, the master who taught us. 

2. The relative pronouns are who, ivhich, and that. 
They are alike in both numbers ; and that is alike 
in all cases. They are thus declined. 

Sing, and Plur. Sing, and Plnr. 
Norn. Who, Which. 

Poss. Whose, Whose. 

Obj. Whom, Which. 

3. Who is applied to persons ; as, the boy who 
reads. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 16. 

Obs. Also to inferior animals, and things without life, when they are 
represented as speaking and acting like rational beings. 

4. Which is applied to inferior animals and things 
without life ; as, the dog which barks ; the book 
which was lost. 

Note. Also to collective nouns composed of persons ; as, " the court 
of Spain which ; " "the company which:" And likewise after the 
name of a person used merely as a word ; as, " The court of Glueen 
Elizabeth, which was but another name for prudence and economy." 

Which was formerly applied to persons as well as things, and is so 
used in the common version of the Scriptures. 

5. That is often used as a relative, to prevent the 
too frequent repetition of who or which. It is applied 
both to persons and things. § 58, Rem. 3. 

6. What is a compound relative, including both 
the relative and the antecedent ; as, this is what I 
wanted, that is, the thing which I wanted. 

OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIVE. 

1. Which has for its possessive whose ; as, A religion whose origin 
is divine. Instead of ivhose, however, the objective with of before it, 
is more commonly used; as, A religion, the origin of which is divine. 

2. What and which are sometimes used as adjectives ; that is, they 
agree with a substantive following them ; as, " I know not by xohat 
fatality the adversaries of the measure are impelled ;" — " Which things 
are an allegory." In this sense, xohich applies either to persons or 
things, and in meaning is equivalent to this or these. 

3. Whoever, whosoever, whatever, and whatsoever are also used as 
oompound relatives, and are equivalent to the relative and a general or 
indefinite antecedent ; as, " Whosoever committeth sin is the servant 
of sin ;" that is, " any one," or " every one who committeth sin, &c." 
" Whatsoever things are of good report ;" i. e. " All things (without 
exception) which are of good report." § 59. Rule in. 

4. Who, and also which, and what without a substantive following 
them, in responsive sentences, or in sentences similarly constructed, 
are properly neither relatives nor adjectives, but a kind of indefinite 
pronouns. Thus, when to the question " Who is the author of that 
poem?" it is replied, "I do not know w ho is its author," the word 



§ 17, 18. ETYMOLOGY. 25 

" icho " is evidently not a relative ; for if it were, then, with the antecedent 
supplied, the sentence would be " I do not know the person who is 
its author." These two sentences, however, are clearly not equiva- 
lent ; the former means " I do not know by what person it was writ- 
ten ; " the latter, " I have no knowledge of him, I am not acquainted 
with him." The first is a direct answer to the question, the last is no 
answer at all, but would be considered as an evasion. 

§ 17. OF THE INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

In asking questions, who, lohich, and xohat are 
called Interrogative pronouns. 

As interrogates, who is applied to persons only ; 
which and what, either to persons or things. What 
admits of no variation. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. In the use of the interrogatives as applied to persons, the follow- 
lowing distinction is to be observed ; namely, Who is used when we 
inquire after a person or persons wholly unknown ; as, Who did it ? — 
Which is used when we inquire after one or more of a number present, 
or already spoken of; as, Which of them did it? Do you know which 
of these men is the president? — What is used when the character, or 
a description of a person is inquired after, and not the name, or the 
individual merely ; as, What man is that ? 

2. When a defining clause is added, either what or which may be 
used ; as, What, or which man among you ? 

2. Whether (now used as a conjunction only) was formerly used as 
an interrogative pronoun, equivalent to, which of the tioo ? Its place 
is now supplied by which. 

4. In answers to questions made by these interrogatives, the same 
words are used as responsives ; as, Who did it? I know not who did 
it. Which of them did it ? I know not which of them did it. See § 16, 
Obs. 4. 

§ 18. OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

There are four sorts of Adjective pronouns, viz. 

the Possessive, Distrihutive, Demonstrative, and 

Indefinite. 

4 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. § 18. 

1. The Possessive pronouns are such as relate to 
possession or property. They are. My, thy, his t 
hevy our, your, their, its, oivn. 

Obs. 1. The possessive pronoun is in fact only another form of the 
possessive case of the personal pronoun, having the same meaning but 
a different construction. The possessive pronoun, like the adjective, 
is always followed by a substantive ; as, this is my book. The pos- 
sessive case of the personal pronoun is never followed by a substan- 
tive, but refers to one previously expressed ; as, this book is mine. 
The possessive case of the substantive is used both ways ; as, this 
book is John's; or, this is John's book. 

Obs. 2. His and her, when followed by a substantive, are possessive 
pronouns : Not followed by a substantive, his is the possessive case of 
he; and her is the objective case of she. 

Obs. 3. Mine and thine were formerly used, before a vowel or the 
letter h, as possessives for my and thy ; as, " Blot out all mine iniqui- 
ties ; " " Commune with thine heart." 

Obs. 4. Own is not used as a possessive pronoun by itself, but is 
added to the other possessive pronouns, and to the possessive case of 
nouns, to render them emphatic ; as, My own book ; The boy's own 
book. The possessive pronoun with own following it, may stand alone, 
having its substantive understood ; as, It is my own. 

2. The distributive pronouns represent the per- 
sons or things that make up a number as taken se- 
parately. They are, Each, every, either, neither. 

Obs. 1. Each denotes two things taken separately ; or, every one 
of any number taken singly. Every denotes more than two things 
taken individually, and comprehends them all. Either means one of 
two, but not both. Neither means not either. 

3. The demonstrative pronouns point out with 
precision the object to which they relate. They 
are, This and that, with their plurals these and 
those. 

Obs. 1. Yon, and former and latter, may be called demonstrative 
pronouns, as well as this and that. 

Obs. 2. That is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demonstrative, and 
sometimes a conjunction. 



§ 18, ETYMOLOGY. 27 

1. It is a relative, when it can be turned into who or lohich ; as, The 
days that (or which) are past, are gone forever. 

2. It is a demonstrative, when it is placed before a noun, or refers to 
one at some distance from it ; as, That book is new ; that is what 1 
want. 

3. It is a conjunction when it cannot be changed into who or which, 
but marks a consequence, an indication, or final end ; as, He was so 
proud, that he was universally despised : He answered, that he never 
was so happy as now ; Live well, that you may be happy. 

4. The indefinite pronouns denote persons or 
things indefinitely. They are, None, any, all, such, 
whole, some, both, one, other. The two last are de- 
clined like nouns. 

Among the indefinites may also be reckoned such 
words as no, few, many, several, and the like ; as 
well as the compounds, whoever, luhatever, which- 
soever, <fcc, and who, which, and xohat, in responsive 
sentences. § 16. Obs. 4. 

None is used in both numbers, but it cannot be 
joined to a noun. 

Note. The distributives, demonstratives, and indefinites, cannot 
strictly be called pronouns ; since they never stand instead of nouns, 
but always agree with a noun expressed or understood : Neither can 
they be properly called adjectives, since they never express the quality 
of a noun. They are here classed with pronouns, in accordance with 
the usages of other languages, which generally assign them this place. 
All these, together with the possessives, in parsing, may with sufficient 
propriety be termed adjectives, being uniformly regarded as such in 
syntax. 

QUESTIONS. 

(§ 16 & 17.) What is a relative pronoun ? Name them. Decline 
who — which. How is 'who applied ? — which ? — that ? — What does 
what, used as a relative, imply ? 

(Obs.) "When are what and which used as adjectives ? How are 
whoever and whosoever applied? How is who applied in asking ques- 
tions? How is which applied? How was whether formerly used ? 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 18. 

How is it now used ? When are who, lohich, and what used as re. 
sponsives ? 

(§ 18.) How many sorts of adjective pronouns are there? Name 
them. Mention the possessive pronouns. How is the possessive pro- 
noun distinguished from the possessive case of the personal pronoun? 
When are his and her possessive pronouns ? — when substantive oi 
personal ? How are mine and thine used ? — oion ? Mention the dis 
tributive pronouns. How is each applied ? — every ? — either ? — neither ? 
Mention the demonstrative pronouns. What other words may be con 
sidered as demonstratives? When is that a relative ?—- a demonstra 
tive? — a conjunction ? Mention the indefinite pronouns. Which of 
them are declined like nouns ? What other words may be consider- 
ed as indefinites ? How is none used ? 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON NOUNS, &c 

A man, he, who, which, that, his, me, mine, thine, whose, 
they, hers, it, we, us, I, him, its, horse, mare, master, thou, 
theirs, thee, you, my, thy, our, your, their, his, her, — this, 
these ; that, those, — each, every, other, any, none, bride, 
daughter, uncle, wife's, sir, girl, madam, box, dog, lad ; a 
gay lady ; sweet apples ; strong bulls ; fat oxen ; a moun- 
tainous country. 

Compare — Rich, merry, furious, covetous, large, little, 
good, bad, near, wretched, rigorous, delightful, sprightly, 
spacious, splendid, gay, imprudent, pretty. 

The human mind ; cold water ; he, thou, she, it ; woody 
mountains ; the naked rock ; youthful jollity ; goodness 
divine ; justice severe ; this, thy, others, one ; a peevish 
boy ; hers, their strokes ; pretty girls ; his droning flight ; 
her delicate cheeks ; a man who ; the sun that ; a bird which ; 
himself, themselves, itself; that house ; these books. 

Correct — The person which waited on us yesterday. 
The horse who rode down the man. The dog who was 
chained at the door. Those sort of trees. These kind 
of persons. The angel which appeared to Moses. The 
boys which learned their lessons so well. The sun who 



§ 19. ETYMOLOGY. 29 

shines so bright. Those kind of amusements. The wo- 
man which told me the story. The messenger which car- 
ried the letter. 

§ 19. V. OF VERBS. 

1. A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, 
or to suffer ; as, 1" am, I love, I am loved. 

The term suffer in this definition is used in a technical sense, and 
means simply the receiving of an action, or the being acted upon. 
Thus, in the sentence "I am loved," the person "I" is spoken of as 
acted upon, or receiving the action expressed by the verb. 

2. Verbs are of three kinds, Active, Passive, and 
Neuter. They are also divided into Regular, Ir- 
regular, and Defective. 

3. A Verb Active expresses what one person or 
thing does to another : as, James strikes the table. 

Here the active verb, strikes, indicates what the subject, James, does 
to the object, table. 

4. A Verb Passive expresses what one person or 
thing suffers from another ; as, the table is struck by 
James. 

Here the passive verb, is struck, indicates what the table suffers 
from James j that is, what is done to it. 

5. A Verb Neuter expresses neither the doing of 
any thing to another, nor the suffering of anything 
from another, but being, or a state of being ; as, I 
am, he sleeps, you run* 

The state of being expressed by a neuter verb may be a state of 
rest; as, I sit, I stand: or of motion ; as, the ship sails, the clouds fly: 
or of action ; as, you walk, they run. 

* According to this division, active verbs include those only which, by some 
Grammarians, are called transitive verbs, and which always admit an objective 
case after them. Under the class of neuter verbs, arc comprehended all verbs 

4* 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 19. 

6. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood and 
participles, affirms or declares. That of which it 
affirms or declares, is called its subject or nomina- 
tive. If the verb is active, its nominative is the ac- 
tor : — if passive, the nominative is acted upon. The 
active verb differs from the passive in form as well 
as in signification. See § 26, and compare § 29. 

7. As an active verb expresses an action exerted 
by an agent on an object, so the object in suffering 
or receiving that action, is passive, or is acted upon. 
Hence every active verb has its passive form. In 
both, the same action is expressed ; in both, it is 
equally transitive ; and hence, by changing the ob- 
ject of the active verb into the subject of the passive, 
the same idea will be expressed ; Thus, 

1. Actively. Caesar conquered Gaul. 

2. Passively. Gaul was conquered by Ccesar. 

It follows then, that active and passive do not, 
strictly speaking, denote two different kinds of verbs, 
but one kind under two different forms, commonly 
denominated the Active and the Passive voice. 

8. Active and Neuter verbs have the same form, 
and therefore can be distinguished only by their sig- 
nification : Thus, 

1 The active verb is always Transitive, i. e. the action which it ex- 

which, in the active form, do not admit an objective after them. This circum- 
stance forms a clear specific distinction between these two classes, which is of 
great practical utility in syntax. On the other hand, to comprehend under the 
title of active verbs those which do admit of an object, and those which do not, 
is to class under one general title words specifically different, — which can tend 
only to confusion. And again, to divide verbs which do not admit an objective 
case after them, into active-intransitive, and neuter verbs, is to set up a distinc- 
tion which it is often very difficult to make, and when made, is of no use what- 
ever. It has therefore been thought best to retain Murray's division, which is 
more simple and useful than any other, and has this advantage, that most dic- 
tionaries of the English language are formed on this principle. 



§ 19. ETYMOLOGY. 31 

presses is exerted on, or passes over to some object ; as, " He loves 
me." The neuter verb is always Intransitive ; it either does not ex- 
press action at all, or if it does, the action does not pass over to any 
object ; it has no effect beyond the subject or agent ; as, you ivalk, 
they run. 

2. An active verb admits a noun or pronoun after it in the objective 
case ; as, " I saw him." The neuter verb does not. Thus, we cannot 
say, " he walks thing." 

3. Every active verb can be changed into a passive form ; thus, 
" James strikes the table," can be changed into " the table is struck by 
James." But the neuter verb cannot ; thus, " I smile" cannot be 
changed into " I am smiled." 

4. In the use of the active verb there are always three things im- 
plied, the actor, the act, and the object acted upon. In the use of the 
neuter verb there are only two, — the subject or thing spoken of, and 
the state or action attributed to it. 

9. Intransitive or neuter verbs, from their nature, 
can have no distinction of voice. Their form is ge- 
nerally that of the active ; thus, I stand ; I run. A 
few admit also of the passive form ; as, He is come ; 
they are gone ; — equivalent to, He has come ; they 
have gone. 

10. Verbs neuter or intransitive, are sometimes 
rendered active, and so capable of a passive form, 
by the addition of another word ; thus, I laugh, is 
neuter, and cannot have the passive form; but, I 
laugh at, is active, and has the passive, I am laugh- 
ed at. Also, when followed by a word of the same 
or similar significations as an object ; as, I run a 
race ; passive, a race is run by me. 

11. The same verbs are sometimes used as active, 
and sometimes as neuter, according to the sense ; 
thus, in the phrase, " Think on me," think is neu- 
ter ; in the phrase, « Charity thinketh no evil," it is 
active. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 19. 

12. Many active verbs in English, by an idiom 
peculiar to the language, are used in a sense nearly 
allied to the passive, but for which the passive will 
not always be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, 
" This field ploughs well ;" " These lines read 
smoothly ;" " This fruit tastes bitter ;" " Linen 
wears better than cotton." The idea here express- 
ed, is quite different from that expressed by the pas- 
sive form, " This field is well ploughed ;" " These 
lines are smoothly ready Sometimes, however, the 
same idea is expressed by both forms ; thus, " Wheat 
sells readily," or u is sold readily at an advanced 
price." (Expressions of this kind are usually made 
in French by the reflected verb : thus, " Ce champ 
se laboure bien ;" " Ces lignes se lisent aisement.") 
When used in this sense, they may be ranked with 
neuter or intransitive verbs, as they are never follow- 
ed by an objective case. 

13. A Regular verb is one that forms its Imper- 
fect tense of the Indicative mood and its Perfect 
participle by adding d or ed to the Present ; as, 
Present, love; Imperfect, loved; Perfect participle, 
loved. 

14. An Irregular verb is one that does not form its 
Imperfect tense and Perfect participle by adding 
d or ed to the Present; thus, Present, ivrite; Im- 
perfect, wrote; Perfect participle, written. 

15. A Defective verb is one that wants some of its 
parts. They are chiefly the Auxiliary and Imper- 
sonal verbs. 

16. To the inflection of verbs belong Moods, 
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 



§ 20. ETYMOLOGY. 33 

§ 20. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

The Auxiliary, or helping verbs, by the help of 
which verbs are principally inflected, are the follow- 
ing, which, as auxiliaries, are used only in the pre- 
sent and past tenses ; viz. 

Pres. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, am, must. 
Past. Did, had, should, would, might, could, was, 

And the participles (of be,) being, been. 
Am, do, and have, are also principal verbs. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Let (used by some Grammarians as an auxiliary in the impera- 
tive mood,) is properly an active verb, and complete. Ought is a de- 
fective verb, having, like must, only the present tense. 

2. Shall implies duty or obligation; will, purpose or resolution; 
may, liberty; can, ability. The past tense of these verbs, should, 
would, might, could, are very indefinite with respect to time ; being 
used to express duty, purpose, liberty, and ability, sometimes with re- 
gard to what is past, sometimes with regard to what is present, and 
sometimes with regard to what is future ; thus, 

Past. He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged. 
Present. I would do it with pleasure, if I could. 
Future. If he would delay his journey a few days, I might, (coula, 
would, or should,') accompany him. 

In these and similar examples, the auxiliaries may be considered 
simply as denoting liberty, ability, will, or duty, without any reference 
to time in themselves, and :that the precise time is indicated by the 
scope of the sentence. The same observation applies to must anc 1 
ought, implying necessity and obligation. 

3. Would is sometimes used to denote what was customary ; as in 
the examples, " He would say ;" " He would desire," &c. Thus, 

Pleased with my admiration, and the fire 

His speech struck from me, the old man would shake ^ 

His years away, and act his young encounters ; 

Then, having shewed his wounds, he'd sit (him) down. 

c 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 20, 

4. Of Will and Shall, Would and Should. 

Will, in the first person singular and plural, intimates resolution and 
promising ; as, I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. We will 
go. I will make of thee a great nation. 

Will, in the second and third persons, commonly foretels ; as, He 
will reward the righteous. You, or they, will be very happy there. 

Shall, in the first person, only foretels; as, I, (or we,) shall go to- 
morrow. 

In the second and third persons, shall, promises, commands, or threat- 
ens ; as, They, or you, shall be rewarded. Thou shalt not steal. Tho 
soul that sinneth shall die. 

But this must be understood of affirmative sentences only ; for when 
the sentence is interrogative, just the reverse commonly takes place ; 
as, Shall I send you a little of the pie ? i. e. will you permit me to send 
it ? Will James return to-morrow ? i. e. Do you expect him ? 

When the second and third persons are represented as the subjects 
of their own expressions, or their own thoughts, SHALL foretels as 
in the first person ; as, " He says he shall be a loser by this bargain ;" 
" Do you suppose you shall go ?" And WILL promises, as in the 
first person ; as, " He says he will bring Pope's Homer to-morrow ;" 
" You say you will certainly come." 

Of Shall it may be remarked, that it never expresses the will or re- 
solution of its nominative. Thus, I shall fall ; Thou shalt love thy 
neighbour ; He shall be rewarded, express no resolution on the part of 
T, thou, he. 

Did Will, on the contrary, always intimate the resolution of its 
nominative, the difficulty of applying will and shall would be at an end : 
But this cannot be said ; for though will in the first person always ex- 
presses the resolution of its nominative, yet in the second and third per- 
sons it does not always foretel, but often intimates the resolution of its 
nominative as strongly as it does in the first person ; thus, "Ye will 
not come unto me, that ye may have life." " He will not perform the 
duty of my husband's brother." Deut. xxv. 7 ; see also verse 9. — 
Accordingly, would, the past time ofivill, is used in the same manner; 
as, " And he was angry, and would not go in." Luke xv. 28. 

Should and would are subject to the same rules as shall and will: 
They are generally attended with a supposition ; as, Were I to run, I 
should soon be fatigued, &c. 

Should is often used instead of ought, to express duty or obligation ; 
as, " We should remember the poor." " We ought to obey God rather 
than men," 



§ 21. ETYMOLOGY. 35 

Would is sometimes used as a principal verb for I wish ; as, " Would 
that they were gone," for, "I wish that they were gone." Thus used, 
it is in the present tense. 

§21. OF THE MOODS.* 

Mood is the mode or manner of expressing the sig- 
nification of the verb. 

Verbs have jive moods ; namely, the Indicative, 
Potential^ Subjunctive, Imperative, and hiftnitive. 

1. The Indicative mood simply declares a thing ; 
as, He loves ; He is loved ; Or. it asks a question ; as, 
Lovest thou me ? 

2. The Potential mood never declares the positive 
existence of a thing, either as present, past, or future ; 
but simply the possibility, liberty, power, will, or 
obligation to be, to do, or to suffer ; as, The wind 
may blow ; We may walk or ride ; I can swim ; 
He would not stay ; You should obey your parents. 

3. The Subjunctive mood represents a thing under 
a condition, supposition, motive, wish, &c. and is pre- 
ceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, and 
attended by another verb in the indicative future, po- 
tential, or imperative ; as, " If thy presence go not 
with us, carry us not up hence." 

4. The Imperative mood commands, exhorts, en- 
treats, or permits ; as, Do this ; Remember thy Crea- 
tor ; Hear, O my people ; Go thy way for this time. 

5. The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a 

* Explanations of the moods and tenses of verbs, are inserted here for the sake 
of order ; but it would perhaps be improper to detain the learner so long as to 
commit them to memory : He may, therefore, after getting the definition of a verb, 
proceed to the inflection of it, without delay ; and when he comes to the exercises 
on the verbs, he can look back to the definition of a verb active, &c. as occasion 
mny require. 



36 ENGLISH GRAXr.IAPw § 22 

general manner, without any distinction of number 
or person, and commonly has to before it ; as, To 

love. 

§ 22. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MOODS. 

1. The future indicative is sometimes used potentially ; i. e. the aux- 
iliaries will and shall belong to the present potential, as well as may, 
or can, or must, when they express present willingness or obligation. 
In this case, the futurity implied is contingent, and not absolute ; as, 
He will do it, if properly solicited. And hence the corresponding woula 
and should, as well as might and could, belong to the past tense. The 
potential mood has no future tense. 

2. The subjunctive mood is always dependent upon, or is subjoined 
to, another verb, expressed or understood. It is sometimes called con 
junctive, because it is usually preceded by a conjunction ; as, if, though, 
unless, &c. Sometimes it is called conditional, because it usually ex- 
presses a condition on which something is suspended. It differs in 
form from the indicative, in the present tense only; — in the verb to he, 
in the present and past. The potential mood is also used subjunc- 
tively, i. e. as dependent on another verb ; as, He would do it if he 
could (do it.) 

Respecting the form and extent of the subjunctive mood, there has 
been some variety of practice among writers, and much variety of opi- 
nion among Grammarians. Some deny the existence of a subjunctive 
form altogether ; and consider what is called the subjunctive as only 
an elliptical form of the future or potential. Among these are Ash, 
Wilson, Grant, and Crombie. Others, such as Johnson, Ward, 
and Pinnock, assign to it a distinct form in the present and perfect, 
differing from the indicative in having the second and third persons 
singular the same as the first. Thus, 

Present Sing. If I love, J/ thou love, If he love. 

Perfect Sing. If I have loved, If thou have loved, If he have 
loved. 
Though some examples of this form of the perfect subjunctive are found 
in old writers of high authority, (see 1 Tim. v. 10) it is believed to be 
now nearly, if not entirely, obsolete. Lowth, and Coote, and Murray, 
and the great body of Grammarians since their day, agreeably to the 
practice of the most correct and elegant writers, limit the subjunctive 
termination of the principal verb to the second and third persons singu- 
lar of the present tense ; all the other parts being precisely as the in- 



§ 22. ETYMOLOGY. 37 

dicative. The weight of authority is decidedly in favour of this prac- 
tice, and accordingly in their place will be found full paradigms of the 
subjunctive mood in this form. 

3. The imperative mood, strictly speaking, has only the second per- 
son, singular and plural ; because, in commanding, exhorting, &c. the 
language of address is always used ; thus, "Let him love," is equiva- 
lent to, "Let thou him love ;" where Let is the proper imperative, and 
love the infinitive governed by it. (Syntax, § 67, — 1, 2.) 

4. The infinitive mood may be considered as a verbal noun, having 
the nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive ; and hence 
it is used both as the subject of another verb, and as the object after it. 
(Syntax, § 47, Rule n. ; and § 4S, Rem. 3.) 

Note. Some Grammarians are of opinion that no more moods or 
tenses ought to be assigned to the verb in English, than are distin- 
guished by difference of form in the simple verb. This principle rejects 
at once the whole passive voice ; and in the active, retains only the 
present and past tense of the indicative mood, and the present of the 
subjunctive. To carry out this principle to its full extent, we should 
reject also the plural number of the tenses that are left; for this is al- 
ways in the same form with the first person singular. This certainly 
reduces the English verb to very narrow limits, and renders it a very 
simple thing ; so simple, indeed, as to be of little use, being capable of 
expressing an action or state only in two relations of time. 

This simplification of the verb, however, tends only to perplex the 
language ; for though it reduces the number of moods and tenses, it 
does not, and can not, reduce the number of the forms of speech, by 
which the different times or modes of action are expressed. It is cer- 
tain, for example, that we have such forms of speech as, " have loved," 
" shall love," " might love," &c. Now since these and other similar 
forms of speech only express different relations of time and manner of 
the one act, " to love," it certainly does seem more easy and simple 
to regard them as different moods and tenses of the verb to love, than 
to elevate the auxiliary to the rank of a principal verb, and then to 
combine them syntactically with the verb to love. Indeed, to dispose 
of them in this way satisfactorily, is not a quite easy or simple matter. 
For example, in the sentence, " I have written a letter," it is easy 
enough to say that have is a verb active, &c. and written a perfect par- 
ticiple ; but when we inquire, what does have govern ? what does 
written agree with ? a correct and satisfactory answer will not be so 
easily found. This example will perhaps show that it is much easier, 
and quite as satisfactory, to rank the expression as a certain mood and 
tense of the verb, "to write." 

This theory has its foundation in the supposition, that a tense, or 
mood must necessarily mean a distinct form of the simple verb. This 
supposition, however, is entirely gratuitous. There is nothing in the 
meaning of the word mood or tense, which countenances it. A verb is 
a word which expresses action ; tense, expresses the action connected 
with certain relations of time j mood, represents it as farther modified by 

5 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 23. 

circumstances of contingency, conditionally, &c. ; but whether these 
modifications are expressed by a change in the form of the simple verb, 
or by its combination with certain auxiliaries, seems to be a matter 
perfectly indifferent. Indeed, the generally received opinion is, that 
the different forms of the verb, denominated mood and tense, in Latin 
and Greek, are nothing more than the incorporation of the auxiliary 
with the root of the simple verb. If so, why should not the uniform 
juxtaposition of the auxiliary with the verb, to answer the same pur- 
pose, be called by the same name ? If a certain auxiliary, connected 
with a verb, express a certain relation of time, properly denominated 
the future tense ; what essential difference can it make, whether the 
two words combine into one, or merely stand together ? On the whole, 
then, there is nothing gained by the proposed simplification : Indeed, 
on the contrary, much, even of simplicity, is lost ; and it moreover 
deprives our language of the analogy which it has in mood and tense 
with other languages, modern as well as ancient ; and if adopted, in- 
stead of smoothing the path of the learner, it would tend only to perplex 
and obscure it. 

§ 23. OF TENSES OR DISTINCTIONS OF TIME. 

Tenses are certain modifications of the verb which 
point out the distinctions of time. 

The tenses in English are usually reckoned six. 
The Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Phi- 
perfect, the Future, and the Future Perfect. 

Time is naturally divided into the Present, Past, and Future : And 
an action may be represented, either as incomplete and continuing, 
or, as completed at the time spoken of. This gives rise to six tenses, 
only two of which are expressed in English by a distinct form of the 
verb. The others are formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs, thus : 
p ( Action continuing ; as, I love, I do love, or I am loving. 

I Action completed ; as, I have loved. 
p ( Action continuing ; as, I loved, I did love, or I was loving. 

( Action completed ; as, I had loved. 
^ i Action continuing ; as, I shall or will love. 

( Action completed ; as, I shall have loved. 
In order better to express the time, and the state of the action, by 
one designation, these tenses, in the above order, may be properly de- 
nominated, The Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past-perfect^ 
the Future, and the Future-perfect. 

1. The Present tense expresses what is going on 
at the present time ; as ; I love you. 



§ 24. ETYMOLOGY. 39 

2. The Imperfect tense represents an action or 
event indefinitely as past ; as, He broke the bottle 
and spilt the brandy; or it represents the action de- 
finitely as unfinished and continuing at a certain 
time, now entirely past ; as, My father ivas coming 
home when I met him. 

3. The Perfect tense represents an action as fin- 
ished at the present time ; as, John has cut his fin- 
ger ; I have sold my horse ; I have done nothing 
this week. 

4. The Pluperfect represents an action or event 
as completed at or before a certain past time ; as, 
" All the judges had taken their places before Sir 
Roger came." 

5. The Future tense represents an action or event 
indefinitely as yet to come ; as, "livillsee you again, 
and your hearts shall rejoice" 

6. The Future-perfect intimates that an action 
or event will be completed at or before a certain time 
yet future ; as, I shall have got my lesson before ten 
o'clock to-morrow. 

Obs. The tenses inflected without an auxiliary, are called Simple 
tenses ; those with an auxiliary, are called Compound tenses. In the 
simple form of the verb, the simple tenses are the Present and Imper- 
fect, Indicative and Subjunctive, Active ; all the other tenses are com" 
pound* 

§24. OBSERVATIONS ON THE TENSES. 

I. The Present tense has three distinct forms — 
the simple; as, I read; the emphatic; as, I do 
read ; and the progressive ; as, I am reading. (§ 28.) 
The first or simple form expresses — 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 24. 

1. The simple existence of the fact; as, He speaks; She writes; 
They walk. 

2. It is used to express what is habitual or always true ; as, He 
takes snuff; She goes to church ; Virtue is its own reward. In this 
sense it is applied to express the feelings which persons long since 
dead, or events already past usually excite in our minds ; as, Nero is 
abhorred for his cruelty ; Milton is admired for his sublimity. 

3. In historical narration, it is used with great effect for the past 
tense ; as, " Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy 
with five thousand men" — and sometimes for the Perfect ; as, " In the 
book of Genesis, Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abra- 
ham," for has told us. 

4. When preceded by such words as lohen, before, as soon as, after, 
and the like, it expresses the relative time of a future action ; as, 
When he comes he will be welcome ; As soon as the Post arrives, the 
letters will be distributed. 

5. The Emphatic form expresses a fact with em- 
phasis, and is made by adding the simple form with- 
out inflection to the auxiliary do in the Present and 
Imperfect Indicative ; as, I do love, I did love : and 
by placing an emphasis on the auxiliary in the Com- 
pound tenses ; as, I will do it. He must go. § 26. 

6. The Progressive form represents an action as 
begun, and in progress at the time of speaking. It 
is formed by annexing the Present participle to the 
verb to be, as an auxiliary, through all its moods and 
tenses ; as, I am writing, I teas writing, &c. § 28. 

II. The Imperfect tense has three distinct forms corresponding to 
those in the present tense : thus, I loved, I did love, I ivas loving. 
The first of these may be called simple and indefinite, because in itself 
it simply represents an action as past, without referring necessarily to 
any particular time at which it took place ; as, " Caesar conquered 
Gaul." It may, however, be rendered definite by introducing some 
definition of time; as, yesterday, last week, &c. The second form 
is emphatic, and expresses the same idea with emphasis. The third 
form may be termed definite, since it intimates an action continuing, 
and necessarily refers to a certain past time expressed or understood ; 



§ 24. ETYMOLOGY. 41 

as, My father was coming home when I met him. All the forms of 
this tense speak of the action or event as taking place in a time now 
entirely past : Or if within a portion of time, some of which still re- 
mains, yet at a point of time in that portion having no connexion with 
the present moment ; as, I wrote to-day. 

III. The Perfect tense never connects an action or event with time 
entirely past, but always with time present ; i. e. with the present in- 
stant, or with a period some part of which is yet present ; as, this day, 
week, year, &c. Thus, we cannot say, I have written yesterday ; but, 
I have written to-day, this week, &c. Of this tense there are two 
forms, e. g. 1 have written, and I have been writing. The latter pro- 
perly represents the action as just completed at the present time ; the 
former is less definite, expressing an action completed within a period 
extending to the present, but giving no information at what point in 
that period the completion was effected ; as, " Many discoveries have 
been made in philosophy and the arts since the days of Bacon." It is 
also used to express an action or state continued through a period 
reaching to the present ; as, He has studied grammar six months— or, 
if the action itself is long since past, still it is continued to the present 
in its consequences. Thus we can say, "Cicero has ivritten orations," 
because the orations are still in existence; but we cannot say, "Cice- 
ro has written poems," but " Cicero wrote poems," because the poems 
do not now exist. Sometimes this tense is employed to express an 
attribute the contrary of that which is expressed by the verb. Thus, 
the Latins usedvmf, "He hath lived," to denote "He is dead;" Ilium 
fuit, " Troy has been," to signify " Troy is no more." So in English, 
"I have been young," equivalent to " Now I am old." 

IV. The Pluperfect tense has the same relation to the Imperfect 
tense that the Perfect has to the present tense. It has all that variety 
of form and use which the perfect has, but connects the completed ac- 
tion or event expressed by the verb with some point or period of 
time now wholly past ; as, then, yesterday, last century, &c. ; as, I 
had written yesterday ; Many discoveries in philosophy and the arts 
had been made before the days of Bacon ; At that time he had studied 
gtammar six months. 

V. The same general observations apply to the Future and Future- 
perfect tenses, in relation to a point or period of time yet future. 

VI. The six tenses here enumerated belong but in part to all the 
moods, except the indicative. The potential has only four tenses j the 
subjunctive, in most verbs, only one distinct from the indicative ; the 
imperative but one ; the infinitive two ; and the participle three. 

5* 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 25, 26 

§ 25. OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 

1. Every tense of the verb has two numbers, the 
singular and plural, corresponding to the singular 
and plural of nouns and pronouns. 

2. In each number the verb has three persons. 
The first asserts of the person speaking ; the second, 
of the person spoken to ; and the third, of the person 
or thing spoken of; thus, I speak ; thou speakest ; 
he, she, or it speaks ; we speak, &c. — § 15, Obs. 1. 

3. The first person singular, and the first, second, and third person 
plural, are always alike. 

4. The second person singular is formed like the superlative degree 
of adjectives (§ 13, 3) by adding st or est to the first j as, love, lovest ; 
speak, speakest. 

5. The*third person singular is formed like the plural of nouns, (§ 8) 
by adding s or es to the first ; as love, loves ; speak, speaks ; catch, 
catches ; fix, fixes. 

EXERCISES ON THE SECOND AND THIRD PERSONS. 

Give the second person of — Learn, walk, sing, dance, 
read, write, drive, give — hurry, tarry, fly, cany — hop, 
skim, trip, ship, form, help* May, can, would, should, 
might. 

Give the third person of — Sell, build, boast, try, cry, 
ride, probe, pass, fix, brush, catch, buzz, go, echo, crush, 
wash, deck, mix. 

§ 26. OF THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS, 

1, The conjugation of a verb is the regular com- 
bination and arrangement of its several numbers, 
persons, moods, and tenses. 

2. In parsing, a verb is conjugated by giving its 
Present and Imperfect tenses, and Perfect parti- 



§26. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



43 



ciple ; thus, Present, Love ; Imperfect, Loved ; 
Perfect participle, Loved. 

3. The conjugation of an Active verb is called the 
Active Voice ; and that of a Passive verb, the 
Passive Voice. 

4. The regular verb, to love, is inflected through 
all its moods and tenses, as follows :— 



Present. Love. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Imperfect. Loved. 



INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Perf. Part Loved. 



Present Tense. 

Singular. 

1. person I love. 

2. Thou lovest o?- you love. 

3. He loves or loveth. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I do love. 

2. Thou dost love. 

3. He does love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I loved. 

2. Thou lovedst. 

3. He loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. 

1. I did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 

3. He did love. 



(Simple Form.) 

Plural. 

1. We love. 

2. Ye or you* love. 

3. They love. 

(Emphatic Form.) 

Plural. 

1. We do love. 

2. You do love. 

3. They do love. 

(Simple Form.) 

Plural. 

1. We loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved. 

(Emphatic Form.) 

Plural. 

1. We did love. 

2. You did love. 

3. Thev did love. 



* You has always a plural verb, even when applied to a single individual,— 
$ 15, Obs. 3. Ye. being seldom used, is omitted in the other tenses to save room* 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 26. 

Perfect Tense. 

Signs — Have, hast, has or hath. 



Singular. 




Plural. 


1 . I have 


loved. 


1. We have loved. 


2. Thou hast 


loved. 


2. You have loved. 



3. He has or hath loved. 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Signs — Had, hadst. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 

3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. 

Future Tense. 

Signs — Shall or xoill. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will love. 1. We shall or will love. 

2. Thou shall or wilt love. 2. You shall or will love. 

3. He shall or will love. 3. They shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Signs — Shall have, or will have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall or will have loved. 1. Shall or will have loved. 

3. Shalt or wilt have loved. 2. Shall or will have loved. 

3. Shall or will have loved. 3. Shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Signs — May, can, or must. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. May or can or must love. 1. May or can or must love. 

2. Mayst or canst or must love. 2. May or can or must love. 

3. May or can or must love. 3. May or can or must love. 



§ 26 ETYMOLOGY. 45 

Imperfect Tense. 

Signs — Might, could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Might, could, would, or 1. Might, could, would, or 

should love. should love. 

2. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Might, could, would, or 

or should st love. should love. 

3. Might, could, would, or 3. Might, could, would, or 

should love. should love. 

Perfect Tense. 

Signs — May have, or must have. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. May or must have loved. 1. May or must have loved. 

2. Mayst or must have loved. 2. May or must have loved. 

3. May or must have loved. 3. May or must have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Signs — Might have, could have, would have, or should have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Might, could, would, o?* 1. Might, could, would, or 

should have loved. should have loved. 

2. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or 

shouldst have loved. should have loved. 

3. Might, could, would, or 3. Might, could, would, or 

should have loved. should have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love. 1. If we love. 

2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 

3. If he love. 3. //they love.* 

Emphatic Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. //"I do love. 1. If we do love. 

2. //"thou do love. 2. //you do love. 

3. If he do love. 3. If they do love. 

* The conjunctions, if, though, unless, &c. do not form any part of the su'j- 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 26. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I loved. 1. If we loved. 

2. If thou lovedst. 2. If you loved. 

3. 7/he loved. 3. If they loved. 

Emphatic Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1/1 did love. 1. If we did love. 

2. //"thou didst love. 2. i/you did love. 

3. If he did love. 3. //they did love. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have loved. 1. If we have loved. 

2. 1/ thou hast loved. 2. If you have loved. 

3. //"he has or hath loved. 3. 1/ they have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had loved. 1. If we had loved. 

2. If thou hadst loved. 2. //"you had loved. 

3. If he had loved. 3. If they had loved. 

Future Tense, 

Singular. Plural. 

l.Ifl shall or will love. 1. //" we shall or will love. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt love. 2. If you shall or will love. 

3. J/ 1 he shall or will love. 3. J/ they shall or will love. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have loved. 1. If we shall or will have loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. 1/ you shall or will have loved. 

3. If he shall or will have loved. 3. If they shall or will have loved. 

junctive mood, but are usually placed before it, to express a condition, supposi 
tion, motive, wish, &c. See § 21, 3, and § 22, Obs. 2. 
N. B. For the Progressive form of the verb, see § 28. 



§ 26. ETYMOLOGY. 47 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. Plural, 

2. Love, or Love thou, or 2. Love, or Love ye or you, 
Do thou love. or Do ye love. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present To love. Perfect To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present Loving. Perfect Loved. Compound perf. Having loved. 

EXERCISES ON THE TENSES OF VERBS, AND CASES OF NOUNS 
AND PRONOUNS. 

Tell the person, number, mood, and tense of, — They 
love ; learn you ; they had walked ; he shall have learned ; 
thou hadst painted ; we can gain ; to form ; to have joined ; 
obeys ; lovedst ; teaches ; we could stand ; she has learned ; 
we shall have gone ; they will have come ; I do love ; thou 
didst love ; they did love. 

Parse the following words and sentences .** — We love 
him ; I love you ; James loves me ; it amuses him ; we 
shall conduct them ; they will divide the spoil ; soldiers 
should defend their country ; friends invite friends ; she 
can read her lesson ; she may play a tune ; you might 
please her ; thou mayest ask him ; he may have betrayed 
us ; we might have diverted the children ; Tom can de- 
liver the message. 

I love ; to love ; love ; reprove thou ; has loved ; we 

* QUESTIONS which may be put to the pupils: — How do you know that love 
is plural 1 Ans. Because we, its nominative, is plural. How do you know that 
love is the first person ? Ans. Because we is the first personal pronoun, and the 
verb is always of the same number and person with the noun or pronoun be- 
fore it. 

Many of the phrases in this page may be converted into exercises of a different 
kind ; thus, the meaning of the sentence, We love him, may be expressed by the 
passive voice ; as He is loved by us. It may also be turned into a question, or 
made a negative ; as, Do we love him ? &c. We do not love him. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 27. 

tied the knot ; if we love ; if thou love ; they could have 
commanded armies ; to love ; to baptize ; to have loved ; 
loved ; loving ; to survey ; having surveyed ; write a let- 
ter ; read your lesson ; thou hast obeyed my voice ; ho- 
nour thy father ; his mother teaches him ; love ; loved. 

The teacher, if he chooses, may now acquaint the learner with the 
difference between the Nominative and Objective. 

When the verb is active, the Nominative acts ; the Objective is acted 
upon ; as, He eats apples. 

The Nominative commonly comes before the verb ; the Objective 
after it ; as, We saw them. In asking questions, the nominative fol- 
lows the verb in the simple tenses, and the auxiliary in the compound 
tenses; as, Lovest thou me ? did he come? may we go? is it fin- 
ished ? 

We may parse the first sentence, for example. We love; We, the 
first personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, plural, the nominative; 
love, a verb active, the first person, plural, present, indicative ; him, tht 
third personal pronoun, masculine, singular, the objective. 

§ 27. The neuter and irregular verb To be, is in- 
flected through all its moods and tenses, as follows : 

Present, Am. Imperfect. Was. Perfect participle. Been. 
INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

( Singular. Plural. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. Thou art. 2. You are. 

3. He is. 3. They are. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. I was. 1. We were 

2. Thou wast. 2. You were. 

3. He was. 3. They were. 



§ 27. ETYMOLOGY. 49 

Perfect Tense, 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been, 

3. He has been. 3. They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 

3. He had been 3. They had been. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be. 1. We shall or will be. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be. 2. You shall or will be. 

3. He shall or will be. 3. They shall or will be. 

Future-perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1. Shall or will have been. 1. Shall or will have been. 

2. Shalt or wilt have been. 2. Shall or will have been. 

3. Shall or will have been. 3. Shall or will have been. 





POTENTIAL MOOD. 




Present Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I may or can or 
must be. 


1. We may or 
must be. 


2. 


Thou mayst or canst or 
must be. 


2. You may <w* 
must be. 


3. 


He may or can or 
must be. 


3. They may or 
must be. 



Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Might, could, would, or 1. Might, could, would, or 

should be. should be. 

2. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or 

shouldst be. should be. 

3. Might, could, would, or 3. Might, could, would, or 

should be.* should be. 

* Were is sometimes used for would be in the 3rd singular ; thus, " That vrsre 
low indeed."— Milt. r\ 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 27. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. May or must have been. 1. May or must have been. 

2. Mayst or must have been. 2. May or must have been. 

3. May or must have been. 3. May or must have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. . Plural. 

1. Might, could, would, or 1. Might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

2. Mightst, couldst, wouldst, or 2. Might, could, would, or 

shouldst have been. should have been. 

3. Might, could, would, or 3. Might, could, would, or 

should have been. should have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. //thou be. 2. //you be. 

3. //he be. 3. //they be. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Were I, or if I were. 1. Were we, or if we were. 

2. Wert thou, or if thou wert. 2. Were you, or if you were. 

3. Were he, or if he were. 3. Were they, or if they were. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1.1/1 have been. 1. If we have been. 

2. //'thou hast been. 2. If you have been. 

3. If he has been. 3. If they have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

l.Ifl had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If thou hadstbeen. 2. J/you had been. 

3. //he had been. 3. //they had been. 



§ 27. ETYMOLOGY. 51 

Future Tense. 

Singular* PluraL 

1. If I shall or will be, 1. If we shall or will he. 

2. Z/' thou shalt or wilt be. 2. If you shall or will be. 

3. 7/ he shall or will be. 3. If they shall or will be. 

Future-perfect Tense. 

Singular* Plural. 

1. If I shall or will have been. 1. If we shall or will have been. 

2. J/" thou shalt or wilt have been. 2. If you shall or will have been. 

3. /fhe shall or will have been. 3. If they shall or will have been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
Singular. PluraL 

% Be,* or Be thou. 2, Be, or Be ye or you. 

INFINITIVE MOOD, 
Present To be. Perfect. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres. Being. Per/. Been. Compound-perfect. Having been. 

EXERCISES ON THE VERB TO BK 

Am, is, art, wast, I was, they were, we are, hast been, 
has been, we have been, hadst been, he had been, you 
have been, she has been, we were, they had been. 

I shall be, shalt be, we will be, thou wilt be, they shall 
be, it will be, thou wilt have been, we have been, they will 
have been, we shall have been, am, it is. 

I can be, mayest be, canst be, she may be, you may be, 
he must be, they should be, mightst be, he would be, it 
could be, wouldst be, you could be, he may have been, 
wast. 

We may have been, mayst have been, they may have 
been, I might have been, you should have been, wouldst 

* Be is sometimes used in the Scriptures, and some other books, for the pre- 
sent indicative ; as, " We be true men ;' for " We arc true men." 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 28, 29. 

have been ; (if) thou be, we be, he be, thou wert, we were, 
I be. 

Be thou, be, to be, being, to have been, if I be, be ye, 
been, be, having been, if we be, if they be, to be. 

Snow is white ; he was a good man ; we have been 
younger ; she has been happy ; it had been late ; we are 
old ; you will be wise ; it will be time ; if they be thine ; 
be cautious ; be heedful youth ; we may be rich ; they 
should be virtuous ; thou mights t be wiser ; they must 
have been excellent scholars ; they might have been pow 
erful. 

§ 28. PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

The Progressive form of the verb (§ 24. 6) is in- 
flected by prefixing the verb to be through all its 
moods and tenses to the present participle ; thus, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present. 1. I am loving. 2. Thou art loving, &c. 

Imperfect. 1. I was loving. 2. Thou wast loving, &c; 

Perfect 1. I have been loving. 2. Thou hast been loving, &c. 

Pluperfect 1. I had been loving. 2. Thou hadst been loving, &c. 

Future. 1. I shall be loving. 2. Thou shalt be loving, &c. 

Future perf. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been 
been loving. loving, &c. 

Mote. In this manner *o through the other moods and tenses* 



§ 29. PASSIVE VOICE. 

A Passive verb is inflected by adding the perfect 
participle to the auxiliary verb to he (§ 27.) through 
all its moods and tenses ; thus, 

Pres. Am loved. Imperfect Was loved. Perf. Part Loved* 



§ 29. ETYMOLOGY. 53 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 

2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 

3. He is loved.' 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Was loved. 1. Were loved. 

2. Wast loved. 2. Were loved. 

3. Was loved. 3. Were loved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. PluraL 

1. Have been loved. 1. Have been loved. 

2. Hast been loved. 2. Have been loved. 

3. Has been loved. 3. Have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Had been loved. 1. Had been loved. 

2. Hadst been loved. 2. Had been loved. 

3. Had been loved. 3. Had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall or will be loved. 1. Shall or will be loved. 

2. Shalt or wilt be loved. 2. Shall or will be loved. 

3. Shall or will be loved. 3. Shall or will be loved. 



Future-perfect Tense. 



Singular. Plural. 

1. Shall or will have been loved. 1. Shall or will have been loved. 

2. Shalt or wilt have been loved. 2. Shall or will have been loved. 

3. Shall or will have been loved. 3. Shall or will have been loved. 

6* 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* § 2& 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

L May or can be loved. 2. May or can be loved. 

2. Mayst <w* canst be loved. 2* May or can be loved. 

3. May or can be loved. 3. May or can be loved* •" 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular* Plural. 

h Mighty &c. be loved. 1. Might, &c. be loved. 

2. Mightst, be loved. 2. Might, be loved. 

3. Might, be fovea. 3. Might, beloved. 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural* 

1. May or must have been loved. 1. May or must have been loved. 

2. Mayst or must have been loved. 2. May or must have been loved. 

3. May or must have been loved. 3. May or must have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plurah 

1. Might, &c. have been loved. 1. Might, &c. have been loved. 

2. Mightst, have been loved. 2. Mighty have been loved. 

3. Might, have been loved. 3. Might, have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I beloved I. If we beloved. 

2. If thou be loved. 2. //'you be loved. 

3. i/he beloved. 3. //they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Were I loved, or Jf I were 1. Were we loved, or If we were 

loved. loved. 

2. Wert thou loved, or If thou 2. Were you loved, or If you 

wert loved. were loved. 

3. Were he loved, or If he were 3. Were they loved, o?' If they 

loved. were loved. 



§ 29. ETYMOLOGY. 55 

Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

J. If I have been loved. l.Jfwe have been loved. 

2. If thou hast been loved. 2. //you have been loved. 

3. //he ha3 been loved. 3. //they have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

].//Ihad been loved. 1. If we bad been loved. 

2. If thou, hadst been loved. 2. //you had been loved. 

3. If they had been loved. 3. If they had been loved. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. if I shall or will be loved. I. If me shall a?- will be loved. 

2. If thou shalt or wilt be loved. 2. //you shall or will be loved. 

3. If he shall or will be loved. 3. If they shall or will be loved. 

Future-perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I shall 07- will have been 1. If we shall or will have been 

loved. loved. 

2. // thou shalt or wilt have been 2. //" you shall or will have been 

loved. » loved. 

3. J/ he shall or will have been 3. If they shall o?- will have been 

loved. loved. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved, 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be loved. Perf. To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being loved. Perf Loved. 

Compound perf. Having been loved. 

$3r After the pupil is expert in going over the tenses of the verb, as given in 
the above tables, he may then be exercised in using one auxiliary at a time.— 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 29. 

EXERCISES ON THE VERB PASSIVE. 

They are loved ; we were loved ; thou art loved ; it 
is loved ; she was loved ; he has been loved ; you have 
been loved ; I have been loved ; thou hadst been loved ; 
we shall be loved; thou wilt be loved; they will be 
loved; I shall have been loved; you will have been 
loved. 

He can be loved ; thou niayst be loved ; she must be 
loved ; they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; they 
should be loved ; I could be loved ; thou mayst have been 
loved ; it may have been loved ; you might have been 
loved ; if I be loved ;* thou wert loved ; we be loved ; 
they be loved. Be thou loved ; be ye loved ; you be 
loved. To be loved ; loved ; having been loved ; to 
have been loved ; being loved. 

Promiscuous Exercises on Verbs, and Cases of Nouns and 
Pronouns. 

Tie John's shoes ; this is Jane's bonnet ; ask mamma ; 
he has learned his lesson • she invited him ; your father 
may commend you ; he was baptized ; the minister bap- 
tized him ; we should have delivered our message ; papa 
will reprove us ; divide the apples ; the captain had com- 
manded his soldiers to pursue the enemy ; Eliza divert- 
ed her brother ; a hunter killed a hare ; were I loved ; 
were we good we should be happy ; James did write ; 
they are reading ; I have been running ; I did run : they 
do come ; he might be doing something ; they must have 
been travelling. 

Thus, Present Potential, I may love ; Thou may est love, &c. And then with 
the next auxiliary; I can love; Thou canst love; He can love. And then with 
the next; I must love; Thou must love; He must love, <fcc., proceeding in the 
same manner with the auxiliaries of the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect. 
* A Conjunction is frequently to be understood here. 



§ 30, 31. ETYMOLOGY. 57 

§ 30. OF THE PARTICIPLES. 
1. The Participle is a part of the verb which 
contains no affirmation, but expresses being, doing 
or suffering, as a general quality of an object, and 
has the same construction as the adjective. The 
Participles are three, the Present, the Perfect, and 
the Compound-Perfect. 

2. The present participle in ~ing always expresses an action, or the 
suffering of an action, or the being, state, or condition of a thing as 
continuing and progressive, 

3. The Present participle of all active verbs has an active signification ; 
as, James is building the house. In many of these, however, it has 
also a passive signification j as, the house was building when the wall 
fell. 

4. The Present participle passive has only a passive signification, 
and intimates the present existence of an act as completed, but never 
as in progress. Thus, " The arrangements being made, he is now 
ready to proceed." In this sentence, " the arrangements," are evidently 
considered as completed. To represent them as in progress, we 
would say thus: "While the arrangements are making, his superin- 
tendence is indispensable" — using the participle making in the pas- 
sive sense. 

5. The Perfect participle, in active verbs, has either an active or 
passive signification; as, "He has concealed a dagger under his 
cloak ;" or, * He has a dagger concealed under his cloak." 

6. The Compound-perfect participle has an active signification only 
in the active voice, and a passive signification only in the passive 
voice. 

7. The participle in -ing is often used as a verbal noun, having the 
nominative and objective cases, but not the possessive. In this cha- 
racter, the participle of an active verb may still retain the government 
of the verb, or it may be divested of it by inserting the preposition of 
after it, in which case an article or possessive pronoun should always 
precede it.— See Syntax, § 64. 

§31. OBSERVATIONS. 

It has lately become common to use the present participle passive to 
express the suffering of an action as continuing, instead of the parti- 
ciple in -ing in the passive sense j thus, instead of, " The house is 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 3L 

building," we now very frequently hear, "The house is being built." 
This mode of expression, besides being awkward, is incorrect, and 
does not express the idea intended. This will be obvious, I think, 
from the following considerations. 

1. The expression, "is being,'* 1 is equivalent to, "is," and expresses 
no more ; just as, "is loving," is equivalent to, " loves.' 1 Hence, " is 
being built," is precisely equivalent to " is built" 

% "Built,' 1 is a perfect participle; and therefore cannot, m any 
connexion, express an action, or the suffering of an action, now in 
progress. The verb to be, signifies to exist; "being" therefore, is 
equivalent to " existing." If then we substitute the synonyme, the 
nature of the expression will be obvious ; thus, " the house is being 
built," is in other words, " the house is existing built, 1 ' or more simply 
as before, " the house is built ;" plainly importing an action not pro- 
gressing, but now existing in a finished state. 

3. If the expression "is being built" be a correct form of the present 
indicative passive, then it must be equally correct to say in the pre- 
sent perfect, "has been being built ;" in the past perfect, "had been 
being built ;'■ in the present infinitive, " to be being built ;" in the 
perfect infinitive, "to have been being built;" and in the present 
participle, " being being built f. which all will admit to be expressions 
as incorrect as they are inelegant, but precisely analogous to that 
which now begins to prevail. 

This mode of expression has probably arisen from assuming that 
the English participle in -ing corresponds to the Latin participle in ns, 
which has always an active signification, and that the perfect partici- 
ple in English corresponds to the perfect participle in Latin, which, 
except in deponent verbs, is always passive. But since it is obvious 
that the analogy does not hold between the two languages in the lat- 
ter case, there is no good reason why it should hold in the former. 
On the contrary, as the perfect participle in English has both an ac- 
tive and passive signification, analogy claims an equal latitude of 
meaning for the participle in -ing; and this claim has been allowed 
by the best writers of the English language. The present participle 
active, and the present participle passive, are not counterparts to each 
other in signification ; the one signifying the present doing, and the 
other the present suffering of an action, for the latter always intimates 
the present being of an act, not in progress, but completed. The 
proper counterpart to the participle in -ing in the active sense, is the 
same participle in its passive sense, or some equivalent circumlocu- 
tion, when a passive sense is not admitted. 



§ 31. ETYMOLOGY. 59 

It is true that of many verbs, the participle in -ing is not used in 
a passive sense. For example, we would not say, - the book is 
reading." It would be equally incorrect to say, " the book is being 
read." Our not using the former expression in this case, and in others 
of a similar nature, is owing to this, that custom has sanctioned a dif- 
ferent mode of expressing the same idea. 

QUESTIONS ON THE VERB. 

§ 19. What is a Verb ? How many kinds of terbs are there? De- 
fine an active verb—*a passive verb — a neuter verb. Into what two 
classes may all verbs be divided ? What is a transitive verb ? — an 
intransitive ? What sort of a distinction is active and passive ? Ha?e 
intransitive verbs any distinction of voice ? How are some neuter 
verbs rendered active ? Are active verbs ever used in a neuter sense ? 
Give an example. 

§ 20. What are auxiliary verbs ? Name them. What kind of 
a verb is let ?— ought ? What does shall imply ? — will ?—may ? 
— can ? Name the past tenses of these verbs. Do they always ex- 
press past time ? If not, how is the time expressed by them to be as- 
certained ? What does will express in the first person ? — in the se- 
cond and third ? What does shall express in the first person ? — in the 
second and third ? 

§ 21, 22. How is a verb inflected? How many voices are there ? 
How are they distinguished ? What is mood ? How many moods are 
there ? Define the indicative, — the potential, — 4he subjunctive, — the 
imperative,— the infinitive* What tense of the indicative is used po- 
tentially ? On what is the subjunctive always dependent ? By what 
other name is it called ? In what tense does it differ from the indica- 
tive ? What person has the imperative mood ? Why ? What is 
the proper character of the infinitive ? 

§23. What is meant by tense? How many tenses are there? 
Name them- ? How is time naturally divided ? In what different 
states do the tenses represent an action m each of these divisions of 
time? What tenses represent the act as incomplete and continuing? 
What tenses represent it as completed ? How does the Present tense 
represent an action ?■ — the Past ? — the Perfect ? — the Pluperfect ? — the 
Future ? — the Future-perfect ? 

§ 24. How many distinct forms has the Present tense ? Give the 
forms of the present of the verb " to love." Distinguish them by 
names, and state how they are applied. How many forms are there 
of the Imperfect tense ? Give examples, and distinguish ihem by 
names. How is the indefinite applied? — the emphatic? — the pro- 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



$32. 



gressive or definite?— How many fenns has the Perfect? How are 
they applied ? In what different ways is the less definite form ap- 
plied ? Can this tense be used to express an act completed prior to 
the present, as yesterday, last week, &c. ? Give the different forms 
and application of the Past-perfect, — of the Future, — of the Future- 
perfect. 

§ 25. How many numbers are there ? How many persons ? What 
does the first person indicate ? — the second ? — the third ? Which per- 
sons are always alike ? How is the second person singular formed ? 
— the third person singular? 

§ 26. How are verbs divided in respect of their inflection ? What is 
a regular verb ? — an irregular verb ? — How is a verb conjugated ? In 
the indicative mood, what are the signs of the Perfect ? — of the Plu- 
perfect? — of the Future? — of the Future-perfect? In the Potential 
mood, what are the signs of the Present? — of the Imperfect? — of the 
Perfect ?— of the Pluperfect? 

§ 30. What is a Participle ? How many Participles are there 7 
Name them. What does the participle in ing express ? Has it ever 
a passive sense ? — Give an example. How is the Present participle 
passive used ? — the Perfect participle active ? — the Perfect ? Describe 
the use of the Present participle as a verbal noun. 



§ 32. OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

1. An Irregular verb is one that does not form both 
its imperfect tense and perfect participle by adding d or ed 
to the present ; as, 



Present. 




Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 




Abide 




abode 


abode 




Am 




was 


been 




Arise 




arose 


arisen 


j 


Awake 




awoke r* 


awaked 




Bake 




baked 


baken r 




Bear, to bring 


forth 


bare or bore 


born 


3 


Bear, to carry 




bore or bare 


borne 




Beat 




beat 


beaten or beat 




Begin 




began 


begun 




Bend 




bend r 


bent r 





* Those verbs which are conjugated regularly as well as irregularly, are marked 
with an R. 



§ 32. 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle, 


Bereave 


bereft r 


bereft r 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bid 


bade, bid 


bidden 


Bind tin- 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow- 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


bought 


Build re- 


built, r 


built, r 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


brought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught r 


caught r 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


clave r 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


clove or cleft 


cloven or cleft 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad r 


Come be- . 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Crow 


crew r 


crowed 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, to challenge is b 


. dared 


dared 


Deal 


dealt r 


dealt r 


Dig 


dug R 


dugR 


Do mis- wn- 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


drunk 


Dwell 


dwelt r 


dwelt r 


Eat 


ate 


eaten 


Fall be- 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 



61 



62 


ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 32, 


Present. 


Imperfect* 


Perfect Participle, 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborn 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get be- for- 


gat or got 


gotten or got 


Gild 


giltR 


giltR 


Gird be- en- 


girtR 


girtR 


Give /or- mis- 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave en- r 


graved 


graven 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Have 


had 


had 


Hang 


hung 


hung* 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove r 


hoven k 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn r 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold oe- with- 


held 


held or holden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


knitR 


knit or knitted 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead mis- 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain or lien 


Light 


lighted or lit 


lighted or lit 


Load 


loaded 


laden r 



* Hang, to take away life by hanging, is regular ; as, The robber was hang- 
ed, but the gown was hung up. 



$32. 


ETYMOLOGY. 




Present. 


Imperfect 


Perfect Participle. 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown b 


Pay re- 


paid 


paid 


Put 


put 


put 


auit 


quit e 


quit 


Read 


read 


read 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride 


rode 


rode, ridden* 


Ring 


rang or rung 


rung 


Rise a- 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven 


Rot 


rotted 


rotten a 


Run 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn r 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set be- 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape mi&> 


shaped 


shapen r 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven r 


Shear 


shore r 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone r 


shone r 


Showt 


showed 


shown 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Shrink 


shrank or shrunk 


• shrunk 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sang or sung 


sung 


Sink 


sank or sunk 


sunk 



63 



* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 

t Shew, shewed, shewn,— pronounced sfiow. &c. See foot of next page. 



64 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§32. 



Present* 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Sit 


sat 


sat or sitten* 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slang, slung 


slung 


Slink 


slank, slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit R 


slit or slitted 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown r 


Speak be- 


spoke or spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend mis~ 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt R 


Split R 

span 

spit or spitten 


Spin 


span, spun 


Spit be- 


spat, spit 


Split 


split R 


spilt R 


Spread be- 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprang or sprung 


sprung 


Stand with- &c. 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stride be- 


strode or strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strewf be- 


strewed 


strewed or 


Strow fce- 


strowed 


strown, strowed 


Swear 


swore, sware 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat 


sweat 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen r 


Swim 


swam or swum 


swum 


Swing 


swang or swung 


swung 


Take be- Sec. 


took 


taken 


Teach mis- re- 


taught 


taught 


Tear un- 


tore or tare 


torn 



* Sitten and spitten are nearly obsolete, though preferable to sat and spit. 
t Strew and shew are now giving way to strow and $hoio t as they are pro- 
nounced, 



§ 32. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


f 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Participle. 


Tell 


told 


told 


Think be- 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve 


thriven 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen r 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound r 


wound 


Work 


wrought r 


wrought, worked 


Wring 


wrung r 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written 



65 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
2. Defective verbs are those which want some 
of their moods and tenses. They are also irregular, 
and chiefly auxiliary : these are, 

Present. Imperfect. Perf. Part. Present. 



Can 
May 

Must 

Ought 

Gluoth 



could 
might 



quoth 



Shall 
Will 
Wis 
Wit or 
Wot 



Imperfect. 
should 
would 
wist 

wot 



Perf. Part. 



Oes. Ought was originally the past tense of the verb to owe. It is 
now used to signify present duty, as must is used to signify present 
obligation or necessity ; as, " Speaking things which they ought not." 
When applied to what is past, the past time is noted by the preterite 
of the subsequent verb; thus, "These things ought ye to have done." 
Will, as an auxiliary, is inflexible in the third person singular ; as, he 
will go. The second person singular has wilt. It is sometimes used 
as a principal verb ; as, he wills to go. Wis, wist, which signifies " to 
think," or " to imagine," is now obsolete. Wit is now confined to the 
phrase to wit, or namely. 

IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

3. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the 
7* E 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 33. 

existence of some action or state, but refer it to no 
particular subject. They are preceded by the pro- 
noun it, and are always in the third person singu- 
lar. To this head may be referred such expressions 
as, It hails, it snows, it rains, it thunders, it be- 
hoveth, it irketh ; and perhaps also, methinks, me- 
thought, meseems, meseemed, in which, instead of 
it, the first personal pronoun in the objective case, 
me, is prefixed to the third person singular of the 
verb. 

QUESTIONS ON IRREGULAR DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL 
VERBS. 

What is an irregular verb ? Are there any verbs which are both 
regular and irregular ? Give an example. What are defective verbs ? 
Jlre tkey chiefly regular or irregular ? Name the principal defective 
verbs. What was ought originally ? How is it now used ? What 
are impersonal verbs ? In tohat person are they always used 7 Give 
an example. What kind of a verb is methinks, methought, &c. ? 

EXERCISES ON THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Name the Imperfect tense and Perfect participle of — 
Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, 
bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, 
go, feel, forsake, grow, have, hear, hide, keep, know, lose, 
pay, ride, ring, shake, run, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, 
smite, speak, stand, tell, win, write, weave, tear. 

§ 33. VI. OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb, to modify or denote some 
circumstance respecting it ; as, Ann speaks distinct- 
ly ; she is remarkably diligent, and reads very cor- 
rectly. 



§ 34. ETYMOLOGY. 67 

Adverbs have been divided into various classes, according to their 
signification. The chief of these are such as denote, 

1. Quality or Manner simply; as, well, ill, bravely, prudently, 
softly ; with innumerable others, formed from adjectives by adding 
ly, or changing le into ly ; thus, tame, tamely ; sensible, sensibly, &c. 

2. Place ; as, here, there, where, — hither, thither, whither. — Hence, 
thence, whence, — somewhere., nowhere, whithersoever, &c— separate- 
ly, asunder. 

3. Time ; as, now, then, when ; soon, often, seldom ; ever, never, 
while, whilst ; already, still, yet, since, ago ; once, twice, thrice ; 
again, hereafter, hitherto ; yesterday, to-day, to-morrow ; lately, pre- 
sently, by and bye, &c. 

4 Direction ; as, upward, downward, backward, forward, hea- 
venward, homeward, hitherward, thitherward, whitherward, &c. 

5. Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise. 

6. Affirmation ; as, verily, truly, undoubtedly, yea, yes, cer- 
tainly, indeed, doubtless, &c. 

7. Uncertainty ; as, perhaps, peradventure, perchance, 

8. Interrogation ; as, how, why, when, wherefore, where, whi- 
ther, whence. 

"9. Comparison; as, more, most, less, least; well, better, best; as, 
so, thus, very, rather, exceedingly, extremely, almost, nearly. 

10. Quantity ; as, much, little, enough, sufficiently. 

11. Number; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. formed from the or- 
dinal numeral adjective, (§13, Obs. 9,) by adding ly, 

§ 34. OBSERVATIONS ON ADVERBS. 

1. The chief use of adverbs is to shorten discourse, by expressing 
in one word what would otherwise require two or more; as, here, 
for " in this place ;" nobly, for k< in a noble manner," &c. 

2. Adverbs of quality, and a few others, admit of comparison like 
adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, soonest ; nobly, more nobly, most no- 
bly.— A few are compared irregularly ; as, well, better, best ; badly, 
or ill, worse, worst. 

3. Some words become adverbs by prefixing a, which signifies at, 
or on ; as, abed, ashore, afloat, aground, apart. 

4. In comparisons, the antecedents as and so are usually reckoned 
adverbs, because they modify an adjective or another adverb ; the cor- 
responding as and so are conjunctions ; thus, It is as high as Heaven. 

5. The compounds of here, there, where; and hither, thither, 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 34. 

whither, are all adverbs ; except therefore and wherefore, which are 
sometimes conjunctions. 

6. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as 
other parts of speech ; thus, 

Much is used, 1. As an adverb ; as, It is much better to give than to 
to receive. 

2. As an adjective ; as, In much wisdom is much 

grief. 

3. As a noun ; as, where much is given much is re- 
quired. 

Yesterday is used, 1. As an adverb ; as, He came yesterday. 

2. As a noun j as, Yesterday is past. 

Before is used, 1. As an adverb ; as, He came before the door was 
opened. 

2. As a preposition ; as, He stood before the door. 

7. Circumstances of time, place, manner, Sec. are often expressed 
by two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase ; as, in short, 
in fine, in general, at most, at least, at length, not at all, by no means, 
in vain, in order, long ago, by and bye, to and fro, &c. which, taken 
together, may be parsed as adverbs, or by supplying the ellipsis ; thus, 
in a short space ; in a general way, &c. 

Exercises on Adverbs, Irregular Verbs, &c. 

Peter wept bitterly. He is here how. She went away 
yesterday. They came to-day. They will perhaps buy 
some to-morrow. Ye shall know hereafter. She sung 
sweetly. Cats soon learn to catch mice. Mary rose up 
hastily. They that have enough may soundly sleep, 
Cain wickedly slew his brother. I saw him long ago. He 
is a very good man. Sopner or later all must die. You 
read too little. They talk too much. James acted wise- 
ly. How many lines can you repeat ? You ran hastily. 
He speaks fluently. Then were they glad. He fell fast 
asleep. She should not hold her head awry. The ship 
was driven ashore. No, indeed. They are all alike. 
Let him that is athirst drink freely. The oftener you read 
with attention, the more you will improve. 



§ 35. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



69 



§ 35. VII. OF PREPOSITIONS. 
A Preposition is a word which expresses the 
relation in which a substantive (noun or pronoun) 
stands to a verb, or to another substantive in the 
same sentence : as. " Before honour is humility ;" 
They speak concerning virtue. 

Words of this class are called prepositions, because they are usual- 
ly placed before the nouns or pronouns to which they refer. 

A LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

To be got accurately by heart. 



About 


Before 


From 


Through 


Above 


Behind 


In 


Throughout 


According to 


Below 


Into 


Till 


Across 


Beneath 


Instead of 


To 


After 


Beside 


Near 


Touching 


Against 


Besides 


Nigh 


Towards 


Along 


Between 


Of 


Under 


Amid ) 


Betwixt 


Off 


Underneath 


Amidst ) 


Beyond 


On 


Unto 


Among ) 


By 


Over 


Up 


Amongst $ 


Concerning 


Out of 


Upon 


Around 


Down 


Past 


With 


Aslant 


During 


Regarding 


Within 


At 


Except 


Respecting 


Without 


Athwart 


Excepting 


Round 




Bating 


For 


Since 





OBSERVATIONS ON PREPOSITIONS. 

1. Every preposition requires an objective case after it. — When a 
preposition does not govern an objective case, it becomes an adverb ; 
as. He rides about. But in such phrases as, cast up, hold out, fall on, 
the words up, out, on, must be considered as a part of the verbs, rather 
than as prepositions or adverbs. 

2. Certain words are used sometimes as prepositions, and some- 
times as adverbs ; as, till, until, after, before, &c 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 36. 

3. Some words in the above list of prepositions might, perhaps with- 
out impropriet) r , be classed with adverbs ; as, near, nigh, &c. , and the 
objective case which follows them, be governed by a preposition under- 
stood ; as, near the house, i. e. near to the house. — "Off the table," 
i. e. off from the table. 

4. Inseparable Prepositions are certain particles never found by them- 
selves, but always in composition with another word. Those purely 
English are, a, be, fore, mis, un. 



EXERCISES CONTAINING PREPOSITIONS. 
He went to town. His father resides in the country. 
He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in the street. 
They divided the inheritance among them. All rivers flow 
into the ocean. He was travelling towards Rome when 
they met him at Milan, without a single attendant. The 
coach was upset between Bristol and London on Wednes- 
day last. 

§36. VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word which joins words and 
sentences together ; as, You and I must study, but 
he may go and play. Two and two make four. 

A LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

1. Copulative — Also, and, because, both, for, if, 
since, that, then, therefore, wherefore. 

2. Disjunctive — Although, as, as well as, but, 
either, except, lest, neither, nor, notwithstanding, or, 
provided, so, than, though, unless, whether, yet, still. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

It will be seen from the above list that the same word varies in its 
character according to its application : e. g. both, either, neither, whether, 
are sometimes adjective pronouns and sometimes conjunctions; that 
is sometimes an adjective pronoun, sometimes a relative pronoun, 
(§ 18, 3, obs. 2,) as well as a conjunction j for, save, except, are some- 



§ 37, 38. ETYMOLOGY. 71 

times prepositions ; since and but are sometimes conjunctions, some- 
times prepositions, and sometimes adverbs; thus, "since (conj.) we 
must part, let us do it peaceably ; " "I have not seen him since (prep.) 
that time ; " " Our friendship commenced long since " (adv.) ; " He is 
poor but honest" (conj.) ; "All but one " (prep.) ; "He has but just 
enough." (adv.) 

§ 37. IX. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word which expresses some 
emotion of the speaker ; as. Oh 1 what a sight is 
here ! Well done ! 

A LIST OP INTERJECTIONS. 
Adieu ! ah ! alas ! alagfe ! away ! ah& ! begone ! 
hark ! ho ! ha ! he ! hail ! halloo !^hum ! hush ! 
huzza! hist! hey-dey ! lo I O ! Oh ! O strange! 
O brave ! pshaw ! sfee ! well-a-day, &c. ^ 

OBSERVATIONS ON INTpfejECTlt^. 

1. Many words denominated interjections, are in fact nouns or.v€fb*s, 
employed in the rapidity of thou&fit and expression, o^GClfsioned by 
strong emotion/ to denote what would otherwise pquire more words 
to express ; as Adieu ! for " I commend you^toijrod ; " Strange ! for 
"that is strange;" Welcome! for " you. a*e^|yelcome ; " and hence 
any word or phrase may become arf interjection, or be used as such, 
when it jl eXpressedAvith em^tfo»; and in an unconnected manner ; 
as, What! Ungrateful creature! Shocking! 

2, is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be pre- 
fixed only to a noun or^fronoun, in a direct address ; as, " O virtue ! 
How amiable thou art." Oh ! is used detached from the word, with a 
paint of exclamation after it. It implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or 

urpri^e' ; as, " Oh ! what a sight is here.'' 

§38. ON PARSING. 
Parsing is the resolving of a sentence into its 
elements or parts of speech. 
Accuracy and expertness in this exercise is an important acquisition, 




72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 38. 

and cannot be fully acquired without a knowledge of the rules of syn- 
tax. At the same time, in order to study the rules of syntax with ad- 
vantage, and especially to be able readily to correct the exercises in> 
false syntax, under each rule, considerable proficiency in parsing hr 
necessary. The pupil must be able at once to distinguish the differ 
ent parts of speech from each other, and to tell the different cases 
moods, tenses, &c. in which a word is found, and to change it readily 
into any other that may be required. 

In proceeding to parse a sentence it is necessary for the pupil in the 
first place to understand it. When he understands a sentence, and 
also the definition of the different parts of speech given in the gram- 
mar, he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining to which of them 
each word belongs ; i. e. which of the words are "names of things," 
or nouns; which " express the quality of things," or, " affirm any thing 
concerning them," that is to say, which words are adjectives, and 
which are verbs. This method will exercise the discriminating pow- 
ers of the pupil better, engage his attention much more, and on trial 
be found much more easy and certain, than that of consulting his dic- 
tionary on every occasion — a plan always laborious, often unsatisfac 
tory, and which, instead of leading him to exercise his own powers r 
and depend on his own resources, will lead him to habits of slavish 
dependence on the authority of others. 

The following General principles should be remembered, and stea- 
dily kept in view in. parsing every sentence, viz : 

1. Every adjective expresses the quality of some 
noun or pronoun expressed or understood. 

2. The subject of a verb, i. e. the thing spoken 
of, is always in the nominative, and is said to be the 
" nominative to the verb." 

3. Every noun or pronoun, in the nominative case, 
is the subject of a verb, expressed, or understood, i. e. 
it is that of which the verb affirms. To this there 
are a few exceptions. 

4. Every verb in the indicative, potential, or 
subjunctive mood has a nominative or subject ex- 
pressed or understood, i. e. it has something of which 
it affirms. 



§ 39. ETYMOLOGY. 73 

5. Every active verb, and every preposition, go- 
verns a noun or pronoun in the objective case, and 
every objective case is governed by an active verb or 
preposition. 

6. Every verb in the infinitive mood is governed 
by a verb or adjective. Sometimes by a noun ; and 
sometimes it stands after the conjunction, than or as. 
See § 67. 

§ 39. SPECIMENS OF PARSING.* 
" Truth and candor possess a powerful charm." 

Previous to parsing this sentence, it may be analyzed to the young 
pupil by such questions as the following, viz : What is spoken of in 
this sentence ? Truth and candor. What is said of them ? They 
possess something. What do they possess ? A charm. What sort 
of a charm do they possess ? A powerful charm. The sentence be- 
ing understood, may be parsed briefly thus : 

" Truth," A noun, neuter, singular, the nominative. 

" And," A conjunction, connecting " truth" with 
u candor." 

"Candor," A noun, neuter, singular, the nomina- 
tive. 

" Possess," A verb active, third person, plural, present 
indicative. 

"A," The indefinite article. 

" Powerful," An adjective, positive degree, qua- 
lifying "charm," compared by more and 
most ; as, more powerful, most powerful. 

* In parsing, the pupil should be required to state every thing belonging to the 
etymology of each word in as few words as possible, and without waiting to 
have every thing drawn from him by questions from his teacher ; this will save 
much time and unnecessary labour. It will also contribute much to order and 
precision, to have every thing respecting each part of speech expressed always 
in the same order and in the same language. The following specimens are given 
as an example. 

8 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 39. 

" Charm," a noun, neuter, singular, the objective. 

Note. — It will also be a profitable exercise to require a reason for every thing 
stated in parsing a word, as for example, Why do you say that " Truth" is a noun ? 
is neuter 1 — singular T — the nominative % To which questions it may be answered, 
Because it is the name of a thing — is without sex — denotes but one, and (together 
with candor) is the subject or nominative of the verb " possess ;" or, is the 
thing spoken of. See note § 12. This exercise should be continued till the pu- 
pil is able to answer all such questions on any of the parts of speech promptly 
and intelligently. 

All the parts of speech are contained in the fol- 
lowing stanza. The words in the parentheses may- 
be omitted till the pupil has got the rules of Syntax. 

O how stupendous was the power 
That raised me with a word ; 

And every day, and every hour, 
I lean upon the Lord. 

0, an interjection — how, an adverb — stupendous, an adjective, in 
the positive degree, compared by more and most; as stupendous, 
more stupendous, most stupendous, — was, a verb neuter, third person 
singular, imperfect, indicative, (agreeing with its nominative power 
here put after it) — the, an article, the definite, — power, a noun, neuter, 
singular, the nominative, — That, a relative pronoun, neuter, singular, 
the nominative, here used for which; its antecedent is power — raised, 
a verb, active, third person singular, imperfect, indicative, (agreeing 
with its nominative that) — me, the first personal pronoun, masculine, 
or feminine, singular, the objective, (governed by raised) — ivith, a pre- 
position — -a, an article, the indefinite — word, a noun, neuter, singular, 
the objective (governed by ivith) — And, a conjunction — every, a dis- 
tributive pronoun — day, a noun, neuter, singular, the objective, (be- 
cause the preposition through or during, is understood, or, obj 
restrictive § 50.)- hour, a noun, neuter, singular, the objective (because 
day was in it, and conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns, &c.) 
I, the first personal pronoun, masculine, or feminine, singular, the no- 
minative — lean, a verb neuter, first person singular, present, indica- 
tive — upon, a preposition — the, an article, the definite — Lord, a noun ? 
masculine, singular, the objective, (governed by upon*) 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 75 

§ 40. EXERCISES IN PARSING.* 

Rule 1. Tico or more adjectives following each other, either xoith or 
without a conjunction, qualify the same word ; as, 

A wise and faithful servant will always study his mas- 
ter's interest. A dismal, dense, and portentous cloud 
overhangs the city. A steady, sweet, and cheerful tem- 
per affords great delight to its possessor. He has bought 
a fine new coat. A sober and virtuous course of conduct 
generally leads to happiness. Virtuous youth brings forth 
accomplished and flourishing manhood. She had the ad- 
vantage of a regular and polite education. 

Rule 2. When an adjectivt precedes two nouns f it generally quali- 
fies them both : as, 

They waited for a Jit time and place. I am delighted 
with the sight of green woods and fields. He displayed 
great prudence and moderation. He was a man of great 
wisdom and moderation. Guard against rash temper and 
conduct. They shewed sincere respect and esteem for 
their friends. 

Rule 3. When an adjective comes after a neuter verb, it generally 
qualifies the nominative of that verb ; as, 

John is wise. They were temperate. The sky is very 
clear. These rivers are deep and rapid. The apples will 
soon be ripe. We have been attentive to our lessons, 
These mountains are very high. The sea is tempestuous. 
Our friends should be dear to us. His behaviour was en- 
tirely inconsistent. The Supreme being is wise and good. 
Their pictures and books are valuable. John's schemes 
were absurd. 

Rule 4. Whatever words the verb to be serves to unite referring to 
the same thing, must be of the same case ; § 61, as, 

Alexander is a student. Mary is a beautiful painter. 
Hope is the balm of life. Content is a great blessing, 
envy a great curse. Knowledge is power. His meat was 
locusts and wild honey. He was the life of the company. 

* The rules in this section are not intended to be committed to memory, but 
to be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40. 

She will be the delight of her friends. Milton is the prince 
of English poets. Shakspeare was a man of unbounded 
genius. Johnson was a powerful writer. Contentment is 
great gain. He might be a most happy man. I under- 
stood it to be him. I took it to be them. I supposed it to 
have been them. — They imagined it to be me. 

JVbte.— It is necessary to the application of this rule, that the words connected 
refer to the same thing. This connexion is often made by other words than the 
verb to be.— See § 61, Rem ] . 

Rule 5. Nouns and pronouns succeeding each other, and denoting the 
same object, are said to be in apposition, and alio ays agree in case ; as, 

Alexander the coppersmith, was not a friend to the Apos- 
tle Paul. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest friend. 
Thomson, the author of the Seasons, is a delightful poet. 
Temperance, the best preserver of health, should be the 
study of all men. He greatly displeased his friend Cato. 
We received the orders from the Duke of Wellington, com- 
mander-in-chief. Religion and Virtue, our best support, 
and highest honour, confer on the mind principles of noble 
independence. 

Note. — In parsing such sentences as the above, a relative and a 
verb may be inserted between the words in apposition. Myself, thy- 
self, himself, &c, often stand at a considerable distance from the 
words with which they agree ; as, 

Thomas despatched the letter himself. They gathered 
the flowers in the garden themselves. Ann saw the trans- 
action herself, and could not be mistaken. 

Rule 6. Myself, thyself, himself, &c, often form the objectives of ac- 
tive verbs, of which the words they represent are the subjects or nomina- 
tives. They are in such cases generally called Reflexive pronouns ; as, 

I hurt myself. He wronged himself to oblige us. 
They will support themselves by their industry. She en- 
deavored to shew herself off to advantage. We must con- 
fine ourselves more to our studies. They hurt themselves 
by their great anxiety. 

Rule 7. Ji Ijectives, taken as nouns, and used in reference to persons," 
are generally of the plural number ; as, 

The valiant never taste of death but once. The virtu- 
ous are generally the most happy. The diligent make 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 77 

most improvement. The sincere are always esteemed. 
The inquisitive are generally talkative. The dissipated 
are much to be pitied. The company of the profane 
should be carefully avoided. The temperate are generally 
the most healthy. 

Rule 8. Nouns and pronouns, taken in the same connexion, must 
he of the same case; as, 

The master taught him and me to write. He and she 
were school-fellows. My brother and he are tolerable 
grammarians. He gave the book to John and Thomas. 
I lent my knife and pencil to one of the scholars. Peter 
and John gained the highest prizes. The snow and the 
ice have quite disappeared. Exercise and temperance 
are the best promoters of health. 

Rule 9. A relative generally precedes the verb that governs it; as, 

He is a friend whom I greatly respect. They whom 
luxury has corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of 
life. The books which I bought yesterday I have not yet 
received. The trees which he planted in the spring have 
all died. He has lost the friend whom he so much re- 
spected. He is a person whom all must admire. The 
lesson which we have finished, has not been difficult. 

Rule 10. When both a relative and its antecedent have each a verb 
belonging to it, the relative is commonly the nominative to the first verb, 
and the antecedent to the second; as, 

He who acts wisely deserves praise. He who is a 
stranger to industry, may possess, but he cannot enjoy. 
They who are born in high stations are not always the 
most happy. The man who is faithfully attached to re- 
ligion, may be relied on with confidence. Those who ex- 
cite envy will easily incur censure. He that overcomes 
his passions, conquers his greatest enemies. 

Rule 11. What, being equal fothat which, or the thing which, may 
represent two cases, either both nominative or both objective; or, the one 
nominative and the other objective ; as, 

This is precisely what was necessary. What cannot be 
prevented, must be endured. We must not delay till to- 
morrow, what ought to be done to-day. Choose what is 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40. 

most fit ; custom will make it the most agreeable. Fool- 
ish men are more apt to consider what they have lost than 
what they possess. What he gained by diligence, he 
squandered by extravagance. 

Rule 12. Whoever and whosoever, used as relatives (§ 16, Gbs. 
3,) generally have the antecedent implied , so that they seem to stand 
as the nominative to two verbs, or as at once the objective after a verb 
or preposition and the nominative of a succeeding verb. The same 
is the case with whatever and whatsoever ; as, 

Whoever told such a story, must have been misinformed. 
Whoever is not content in poverty, would not be perfectly 
happy in the midst of plenty. W hoever passes his time in 
idleness, can make but little improvement. Whatever gives 
pain to others, deserves not the name of pleasure. What 
ever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. 

Note. — Whatever is most frequently used, as what sometimes is, 
(§16, Obs. 2.) simply to qualify a noun ; as, 

Aspire at perfection, in whatever state of life you may be 
placed. I forget what words he uttered. By what means 
shall we obtain wisdom. By whatever arts we may at- 
tract attention, we can secure esteem only by amiable dis- 
positions. 

Rule 13. Participles, though they never directly declare, yet alio ays 
imply something either done or doing; and are used in reference to some 
noun or pronoun ; as, 

Admired and applauded, he became vain. Having 
finished our lessons, we went to play. Proceeding on his 
journey, he was seized with a dangerous malady. Being 
engaged at the time of my call, he had not a moment to 
spend with me. Having early disgraced himself, he be- 
came mean and dispirited. Knowing him to be my su- 
perior, I cheerfully submitted. 

Rule 14. The perfect participle of a few neuter verbs is sometimes 
joined to the verb to be, ivtyich gives such verbs a passive appearance ; as, 

I am come, in compliance with your desire. If such 
maxims and practices prevail, what is become of decency 
and virtue ? The old house is at length fallen down. 
John is gone to London. 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 79 

Rule 15. Neuter verbs are often folloioedby prepositions, making 
what are sometimes called compound active verbs. The verb and prepo- 
sition may in such cases be parsed, either together or separately in the 
active voice. In the passive voice they must be parsed together ; as, 

He laughed at such folly. They smiled upon us in such 
a way as to inspire courage. He struck at his friend with 
great violence. He was sadly laughed at for such con- 
duct. 

Rule 16. A noun or pronoun is often used with a participle, without 
being connected in grammatical construction with any other words of the 
sentence. It is then called the nominative absolute ; as, 

The father being dead, the whole estate came into the 
hands of the eldest son. He destroyed, or won to what 
may work his utter loss, all this will soon follow. Whose 
gray top shall tremble, he descending. The house being 
built and finished, he was expected to take immediate 
possession. The sun rising, darkness flies away. Our 
work being finished, we will play. 

Rule 17. To, the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after the verbs bid, 
dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let ; and sometimes after perceive, 
behold, observe, have, know, &e. as. 

I&t me look at your portrait. He bade me go with him. 
I heard him assert the opinion. I like to see you behave 
so well. Let him apply to his books, and then he will 
make improvement Let us make all the haste in our 
power. I saw him ride past at great speed. I have ob- 
served some satirists use the term. 

Rule 18. Verbs connected by conjunctions, are usually in the same 
mood and tense ; but in the compound tenses the sign is often used with 
the first only and understood with the rest; as, 

He can neither read nor write. He shall no longer 
tease and vex me as he has done. He commanded them 
that they should not depart from Jerusalem, but wait for the 
promise of the father. His diligence should have been 
commended and rewarded. Every mind, in its present 
state, is obliged to receive information, and execute its pur- 
poses, by the intervention of the body. Fame cannot 
spread wide, or endure long, that is not rooted in nature, 
and matured by art, 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 40. 

Rule 19. Nouns and pronouns, and especially words denoting time, 
are often governed by prepositions understood ; or are used to restrict 
verbs or adjectives without a governing word, § 50. Rem. 6 and Rule ; as, 

He gave (to) me a full account of the whole affair. 
Will you lend me your knife. It is not time yet to go home* 
He returned home at a very inconvenient season. He tra- 
velled last summer as far as London on foot. He was in 
Paris last month. He visited Rome last year in the spring. 
They remained twenty-four days at Naples, and walked 
twelve miles each day. I sent him the despatches some 
time ago. 

Rule 20. The conjunctions than and as, implying comparison, 
have the same case after them as before them; and the latter case has the 
same construction as the former ; as, 

He has more books than my brother (has.) Mary is 
not so handsome as her sister (is.) They respect him 
more than (they respect) us'* James is not so diligent 
as Thomas. They are much greater gainers than I by 
this unexpected event. Though she is not so learned as 
he, she is as much beloved and respected. These people 
are not so proud as he, nor so vain as she. 

Rule 21. The class of words or part of speech to which a word 
belongs, depends often on its application ; as, 

Calm was the day and the scene delightful. We may 
expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is 
easier than to calm it. Better is a little with content, than 
a great deal with anxiety. The gay and dissolute think 
littie of the miseries which are stealing softly after them. 
A little attention will rectify some errors. Though he 
is out of danger he is still afraid. He laboured to still 
the tumult. Still waters are commonly deepest. Damp 
air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our 
sprightliest hours^ Soft bodies damp the sound much 
more than hard ones. Though she is rich and fair, yet 
she is not amiable. They are young, and must suspend 
their judgment yet a while. Many persons are better 
than we suppose them to be. The few and the many 
have their prepossessions. Few days pass without some 
clouds. Much money is corrupting. Think much and 



§ 40. ETYMOLOGY. 81 

speak little. He has seen much of the world and been 
much caressed. His years are more than hers, but he 
has not more knowledge. The more we are blessed the 
more grateful we should be. The desire of getting more 
is rarely satisfied. He has equal knowledge, but in- 
ferior judgment. She is his inferior in sense but his 
equal in prudence. 

Rule 22. Do, have and be, are principal verbs when used by them- 
selves, but auxiliaries when connected with other verbs ; as, 

He does all in his power to gain esteem. He did his 
utmost to please his friend. We must do nothing that 
will sully our reputation. She has a strong claim to our 
respect. They had not the slightest intention to wound 
our feelings. The man who has no sense of religion is 
little to be trusted. He who does the most good has the 
most pleasure. They were not in the most prosperous 
circumstances when we last saw them. He does not 
write so well as he reads. We did not stay with him 
above a month. True wisdom does not inspire pride. 
The butler did not remember Joseph. Did he send the 
book, as he was desired ? Do they make much pro- 
gress in their studies ? Have they ascertained the person 
who gave the information ? They had not determined 
what course to take. We are surprised at the news. 

Rule 23. An infinitive, a participle, or a member of a sentence, which 
may be called a substantive phrase, is often the nominative to a verb, or 
the objective after an active verb or preposition ; as, 

1. Nominative. To study hard is the best way to improve. 
To endure misfortune with resignation is the characte- 
ristic of a great mind. To advise the ignorant, relieve 
the needy and comfort the distressed, are duties incum- 
bent on all. John's being from home occasioned the delay. 
His having neglected opportunities of improvement, was 
the cause of his disgrace. The implanting of right 
principles in the breast of the young, is important both to 
themselves and to society. The assisting of a friend in 
such circumstances was certainly a duty. 

2. Objective. He that knows how to do good and does 
it not, is without excuse. He will regret his having ne- 

F 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 40. 

glected opportunities of improvement when it may be too 
late. He declared that nothing could give him greater 
pleasure. Of making many books there is no end. You 
will never repent of having done your duty. 

Obs. 1. When a substantive phrase is governed by a verb or prepo- 
sition, this regimen does not affect the case of individual nouns or pro- 
nouns in that phrase, but leaves them subject to the influence of other 
words within the phrase itself. 

Obs. 2. In sentences of this kind, the infinitive mood and participle 
are often used for the name of the action, or state, or affection express- 
ed by the verb ; as, " To profess (professing) regard, and to act (acting) 
differently, mark a base mind." Here it is to be observed that the 
infinitive and participle are really abstract nouns perfectly indefinite in 
their application, there being no particular subject to which the action 
may be referred. 

If the infinitive or participle of the verb to be, or of a passive verb ol 
naming, &c. (§ 61, R. 1.) is used in this way without a definite sub- 
ject, the substantive which follows it as a predicate receives the same 
indefinite character ; it is neither the subject of a verb nor is under 
the regimen of any word ; Thus, "His being an expert dancer does 
not entitle him to our regard." This will be allowed to be a correct 
English sentence, complete in itself, and requiring nothing to be 
supplied. The phrase, " being an expert dancer," is the subject of the 
verb, " does entitle ;" but the word " dancer" in that phrase is neither 
the subject of any verb, nor is governed by any word in the sentence. 
Of this kind are all such expressions as the following: "It is an ho- 
nour to be the author of such a work." " To be virtuous is to be hap- 
py." "To be surety for a stranger is dangerous." "Not to know 
what happened before you were born, is to be always a child." " The 
atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall neither attempt to pal- 
liate or deny." (Pitt.) " He was not sure of its being me." " Its being 
me needs make no difference in your determination." 

If the last two examples are correct, they shew that whether the 
phrase is the nominative or objective, i. e. whether it is the subject of a 
verb or is governed by an active verb or preposition ; the word fol- 
lowing the infinitive or participle as a predicate is properly in the ob- 
jective case,* and in parsing, may correctly be called the objective in- 

* This corresponds to the Latin and Greek idiom in such sentences as the 
following : " Nescire quid accident antequam natus es, est semper esse puc- 
ram."— Not to know what happened in past years, is to he always a child— 



§ 41. ETYMOLOGY. 63 

definite. Or the whole phrase may be parsed as one word. (§61. Rem. 
2.) The following are also examples. 

He had the honour of being a director for life. By be- 
ing a diligent student, he soon acquired eminence in his 
profession. Many benefits result to men from being wise 
and temperate (men.) 

R.ULE 24. It, often refers to persons, (§15, Obs. 5,) or to an infini- 
tive coming after; as, 

It is John that is to blame. It was I that wrote the let- 
ter. It is the duty of all to 'improve. It is the business 
of every man to prepare for death. It was reserved for 
Newton to discover the law T of gravitation. It is easy to 
form good resolutions, but difficult to put them in practice. 
It is incumbent on the young to love and honour their pa- 
rents. 

Rule 25. Words, especially in poetry, are often much transposed ; as, 

Great is Diana of the Ephesians. On yourself depend 
for aid. Happy the man who puts his trust in his maker. 
Of night the gloom was dark and dense. 

Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand 

Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold. 

No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets. 

A transient calm the happy scenes bestow 

When first thy sire to send on earth 

Virtue, his darling child, designed. 

On flattering appearances put no reliance. 

He with viny crown advancing, 

First to the lively pipe his hand addressed. 

Grieved though thou art, forbear the rash design. 

Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 

Orion's dog, the year when Autumn weighs. 

§ 41. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The world was made by a Supreme Being. He who 
made it now preserves and governs it. Nothing happens 
without his permission. He sees all our actions and hears 

ten r&v aiaxp&v . . . tottuv, o>p ripiiv wort Kvptoi (paivsadai rpo'iSfthovs- 
•• It is a shame to be seen giving up countries of which we were once masters/' 
—Demosthenes. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 41. 

all our words. The thoughts of the heart are known to 
him. In him we live, he gave us life, and without him we 
cannot breathe. Wherever we are, God is with us. 
When we sit in the house God is there ; and when we 
walk by the way, he is at our right hand. He is a spirit, 
and fills heaven and earth with his presence. 

Demosthenes, who was born at Athens, was a very fa- 
mous orator. He acquired the art of speaking by great 
labor and study. By nature he had not a good voice, 
and could not rightly pronounce some words. That he 
might learn to speak distinctly, he put small round peb- 
bles in his mouth while he spoke, in order to cure his de- 
fect. He used to shut himself up in his chamber, and to 
study a whole month together. He often went to the 
shore, and pronounced his orations to the waves, that he 
might be better able to endure the noise and clamor of 
the people. He made many orations both on private 
and public occasions. But he used his eloquence chiefly 
against Philip, king of Macedon, and, in several orations, 
he stirred up the Athenians to make war against him. 

The mimic thrush, or mocking bird, is about the size of 
a blackbird, but somewhat more slender. The plumage is 
grey, but paler on the under parts than above. 

It is common in some parts of America and in Jamaica ; 
but changes its place in summer, being then seen much 
more to the northward than in winter. It cannot vie with 
the feathered inhabitants of those countries in brilliancy of 
plumage ; but is content with much more rare and estima- 
ble qualities. It possesses not only natural notes of its 
own, which are truly musical and solemn, but it can at plea- 
sure assume the tone of every other animal in the forest, 
from the humming bird to the eagle, descending even to 
the wolf or raven. One of them confined in a cage has been 
heard to mimic the chattering of a magpie, and the creak- 
ing of the hinges of a sign-post in high winds. 

This capricious little mimic seems to have a singular 
pleasure in archly leading other birds astray. He is said 
at one time to allure the smaller birds with the call of their 
mates ; and when these come near, to terrify them with the 
scream of the eagle. There is scarcely a bird of the fo- 
rest, that is not at some time deceived by his call. 



§ 41. ETYMOLOGY. 85 

THE POPLAR FIELD. 
The poplars are fell'd, farewell to the shade, 
And the whispering sound of the cool colonade, 
The winds play no longer and sing in the leaves, 
Nor Ouse in his bosom their image receives. 
Twelve years have elapsed since I last took a view 
Of my favorite field, and the bank where they grew; 
And now in the grass, behold they are laid, 
And the tree is my seat, that once lent me shade. 
The blackbird has fled to another retreat, 
Where the hazels afford him a screen from the heat ; 
And the scene, where his melody charmed me before, 
Resounds with his sweet-flowing ditty no more. 
My fugitive years are all hastening away, 
And I must ere long lie as lowly as they, 
With a turf on my breast, and a stone at my head, 
Ere another such grove shall arise in its stead. 

Note. — For additional exercises in parsing, any simple correct writer may be 
used by those who are less advanced ; and fbr the more advanced student nothing 
better can be supplied than Pope's Essay on Man, or Milton's Paradise Lost. 



PART HI. 

§43. SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that part of Grammar which treats of 
the proper arrangement and connexion of words in a 
sentence. 

A sentence is such an assemblage of words as makes 
complete sense ; as, Man is mortal. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, but 
not making complete sense ; as, In truth ; To be plain with 
you. 

Sentences are of two kinds, Simple and Compound. 

A Simple sentence contains but one subject and one 
finite* verb ; as, Life is short. 

A Compound sentence contains two or more simple sen- 
tences combined ; as, Life, which is short, should be well 
employed. 

Every simple sentence or proposition consists of two parts, the sub- 
ject and the predicate. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of. In English it is always 
the nominative to the verb. 

The predicate is the thing affirmed or denied of the subject. It is 
either contained in the verb itself, as. "John reads" or it follows the 
verb to be, or some other verb of like import, which in this case is 
called the copula; as, " Time is shoi't" " They became poor." If the 
predicate contains an active verb, the object of the action expressed by 
it follows in the objective case. Neuter verbs have no object. 

The subject or nominative, the verb and the object, may each be 
attended by other words called adjuncts, which serve to modify or re- 
strict the meaning of the word with which they stand connected ; as, 

* A finite verb is a verb restricted by person and number. AJ1 verbs are finite 
in the indicative, Potential, Subjunctive, and Imperative ; but not in the Infini- 
tive and Participles, 



§ 44, 45. syntax. 87 

"An inordinate desire of admiration often produces a contemptible 
levity of deportment." 

When a compound sentence is so framed that the meaning is sus- 
pended till the whole be finished, it is called a Period ; otherwise the 
sentence is said to be loose. 

§44. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and a nomi- 
native (or subject) expressed or understood. 

2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or par- 
ticiple, must have a substantive expressed or understood. 

3. Every nominative has its own verb expressed or un- 
derstood. 

4. Every verb (except in the infinitive and participles) 
has its own nominative expressed or understood. 

5. Every possessive case is governed by some noun 
denoting the thing possessed. 

6. Every objective case is governed by an active verb 
or preposition. 

7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an ad- 
jective or substantive. 

Obs. The exceptions to these general principles will appear in the 
Rules of Syntax. 

§ 45. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 

The Rules of Syntax may all be included under three 

heads. Concord, Government and Position. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with an- 
other in gender, number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one word has in direct- 
ing the mood, tense, or case of another word. 

Position means the place which a word occupies in a 
sentence. 

In the English language, which has but few inflections, the mean- 
ing of a sentence depends much on the position of the words which 
it contains. 



88* ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 46, 

§ 46. Rule I. A Verb must agree with its no- 
minative in number and person ; as. Thou readest. 
He reads. We read. 

Note 1. The nominative to a verb is known by putting the question Who ? or, 
What ? with the verb. The answer to the question will be the nominative ; as, 
" i" ready Who reads 1 Ans. I. 

Note 2. Under this rule the General Principles § 44, 3, 4, must be carefully ob- 
served. For, as follows, as concerns, as appears, &c. See § 86, 3. 

EXERCISES. 

I loves reading. A soft answer turn away wrath. We 
is but of yesterday and know nothing. The days of man 
is but as grass. Thou sees how little has been done. He 
need not proceed in such haste. He dare not act other- 
wise. Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of 
flour. A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. So 
much both of ability and merit are seldom found. Nothing 
but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. A judici- 
ous arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. A few 
pangs of conscience now and then interrupts his pleasure, 
and whispers to him that he once had better thoughts. 
There was more impostors than one. What signifies good 
opinions when our practice is bad ? To these precepts 
are subjoined a copious selection of rules and maxims. 
In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. 

The number of our days are with thee. There remains 
two points to be considered. There is in fact no imper- 
sonal verbs in any language. I have considered what have 
been said on both sides. Great pains has been taken to 
make this work as useful as possible. In piety and vir- 
tue consist the happiness of man. , You was not at home 
when the servant called. Thomas where wast you when I 
called. § 15, Obs. 4. 

In order to exercise the judgment of the pupil, as well as to shew that he under- 
stands the rule, he may be required to assign a reason for the changes made in 
correcting the exercises under this and the following rules. If well versed in 
parsing, this may be done without loss of time, even in a large class, by directing 
him to state the reason always, without waiting to be asked for it. Thus in the 
above exercises, " Loves" should be " love," because " I" is the 1st pers. sing. 
"Tiirn" should be " turns," because " answer" is the 3d pers. sing. &c. 



§ 47. SYNTAX. 89 

§ 47. Special rules and observations under rule 1. 

Rule I. The subject of a verb should be in the nominative ; as, He 
and she are of the same age ; not, Him and her. 

Rule II. The Infinitive mood or part of a sentence is often used as 
the nominative to a verb ; as, To play is pleasant ; His being at enmity 
with Ccesar, was the cause of perpetual discord. 

Rule III. A noun singular used for a plural is joined to a plural 
verb ; as, Ten sail of the line were seen at a distance. (§ 10, 4 note.) 

Note. Nouns plural in form but singular in signification, may be joined either 
with a singular or plural verb. <S 10, 5. 

Rule IV. A noun and its pronoun should never be used as a nomina- 
tive to the same verb ; as, The king is just ; not, the king he is just. 
Except that himself herself &c. are joined with a noun or pronoun 
rendering it emphatic. § 15, Obs. 2. 

Rule V. When the verb to be stands between a singular and plural 
nominative, it agrees with the one next it, or the one whichis more natur- 
ally the subject of it; as, The wages of sin is death. 

EXERCISES ON PRECEDING RULES. 

I. Him and I are able to do it. You and us enjoy many 
privileges. I thought you and them had become friends. 
If you were here, you would find three or four, whom you 
would say pass their time very agreeably. Whom shall 
be sent to admonish him ? 

II. To live soberly, righteously and godly are required 
of all men. To do unto others as we would that they 
should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. 
A fondness for distinction often render a man ridiculous. 

III. Forty head of cattle was grazing in yonder mea- 
dow. Twelve brace of pigeons was sold for a dollar. 
One pair were spoiled ; five pair was in good condition. 

IV. Simple and innocent pleasures they alone are dura- 
ble. My banks they are furnished with bees. This rule 
if it had been observed, a neighboring prince would have 
wanted a great deal of that incense which has been offered 
up to him. John, he said so, and Thomas, he said so, and 
the rest of them, they all said so. Man that is born of a 
woman he is of few days and full of trouble. 

V. A great cause of the low state of industry was the 
restraints put upon it. His meat were locusts and wild ho- 
ney. The crown of virtue is peace and honour. 

9* 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 48. 

§ 48. Rule II. An active verb governs the objec- 
tive case ; as, We love him. He loves tis. Whom 
did they send? 

Observation. A neuter verb sometimes governs the objective case 
of a noun of the same or kindred signification ; as, Let us run the race 
which is set before us. "With this construction may be classed such 
expressions as the following : : — "The brooks ran nectar*" "The 
trees wept gums and balm." "Her lips blush deeper sweets." 
" They ascended the mountain." 

Remark 1. The participle being a part of the verb, governs the same case. 

Remark 2. When the objective is a relative or interrogative, it comes before 
the verb that governs it. § 40, R. 9. (Mr. Murray's 6th rule is unnecessary.) 

Remark 3. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence, as well as a noun or pro- 
noun, may be the object of an active verb; as, Boys love to play; I wish that 
thsy were wise. You see how few of these men have returned. 

Remark 4. As substantives have no distinct form of the objective case, the 
arrangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one case from the 
other. The nominative generally precedes the verb ; the objective follows it ; 
but when the objective is a relative or interrogative, it precedes both the verb 
and its nominative. The objective should not, if possible, be separated from its 
verb 

EXERCISES. 

He loves I. He and they we know, but who art thou ? 
She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. Ye only 
have I known. Let thou and I the battle try. He who 
committed the offence, thou shouldst correct ; not I who 
am innocent. 

(R. 1.) Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. 
Upon seeing I, he turned pale. Having exposed his self 
to the lire of the enemy, he soon lost an arm in the action. 

(R. 2.) The man who he raised from obscurity, is dead. 
Who did they entertain so freely ? They are the persons 
who we ought to respect. Who having not seen, we love. 
They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has 
corrupted, are not happy. Wlio do I love so much 1 Who 
should I meet the other day but my old friend 1 Who shall 
I pay for this service 1 

(R. 4.) Faulty Arrangement.— This is the man, he be- 
lieved, whom he would send on that business. Becket 
could not better discover, than by attacking so powerful an 
interest, his resolution to maintain his right. 



§ 49. SYNTAX. 91 

§ 49. Special Rules under Rule IL 

I. Neuter Verbs do not admit of an objective case after them. Thus, 
" Repenting him of his design," should be "repenting of his design." 

li. A Neuter verb does not admit of a passive voice, (§ 19, 9,) ex- 
. cept its nominative be of the same, or kindred signification with the 
verb ; as, My race is run. 

III. Active Verbs do not admit of a preposition after them. — Thus, 
'• I must premise thiih three circumstances/' should be, " I must premise 
three circumstances." 

Obs. Verbs signifying to ask, teach, offer, promise, pray, tell, 
allow, deny, and some others, sometimes in colloquial language have 
an objective case after the passive voice; as, I was taught Grammar. 
This may also be expressed actively; as, He taught (to) me Gram- 
mar; or passively, Grammar was taught (to) me. 

EXERCISES. 

I. The king found reason to repent him of such dan- 
gerous enemies. They did not fail to enlarge themselves 
on the subject. Go flee thee away into the land of Ju- 
dea. It will be difficult to agree his conduct with the 
principles he professes. " Then having showed his 
wounds, he'd sit him down." 

II. This person was entered into a conspiracy against 
his master. Fifty men are deserted from the army. 
The influence of this corrupt example was then entirely 
ceased. My father was returned yesterday. 

III. I shall premise with two or three general observa- 
tions. He ingratiates with some, by traducing others. 
We ought to disengage from the world by degrees. He 
will not allow of it. They shall not want for encourage- 
ment. The covetous man pursues after gain. 

(Obs.) Change the following sentences into the forms 
specified in the Obs, — A iew questions were asked at the 
witness. A ship was promised to him in a few weeks. 
A pardon was offered (to) him. Great liberty was al. 
lowed (to) me. That was told (to) him some time ago. 
She would not accept the jewels, though they were of- 
fered to her bv her mother. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 50. 

§ 50. Rule III. Prepositions govern the objec- 
tive case; as. To whom much is given, of him 
much shall be required. 

Remark 1. Prepositions should be placed before the words which they govern, 
and as near to them as possible ; but never before the relative that. 

Remark 2. Whom and which are sometimes governed by a preposition at some 
distance after them ; but this is at least inelegant, and should be avoided in com- 
position. 

Remark 3. The preposition, with its regimen, should be placed as near as 
possible to the word to which it is related. 

Remark 4. A preposition should never be used before the infinitive. 

Remark 5. It is generally inelegant and improper to connect a preposition and 
an active verb with the same word ; as, I wrote to, and warned him of his danger. 

Remark 6. The preposition is often omitted ; as, Give (to) me the book ; do it 
(in) your own way ; I wrote (to) you long ago ; like (unto) his father. Many 
cases of supposed ellipsis, however, may be better disposed of under the following 

Rule. A noun denoting time, place, price, iveight, or measure, is some- 
times used in the objective, without a governing iv or d, to restrict the mean- 
ing of a verb or adjective with which it stands connected ; as, He was ab- 
sent six months. — Let us go home. — It cost a penny, but it is not worth 
a farthing. The parcel weighs a pound. The wall is six feet high. 

This may be called the objective case restrictive. 

EXERCISES. 
To who will you give that pen ? Will you go with 
him and I? Withhold not good from they to who it is 
due. With who do you live ? Great friendship subsists 
between he and I. He laid the suspicion on somebody, 
I know not who, in the company. (Rem. 1.) Who do 
you speak to ? Who did they ride with ? It was not he 
that they were angry with. To have no one who we 
are warmly concerned for, is a deplorable state. 2. It 
was not he that they were so angry with. The book 
which the story is printed in, is full of fiction. 3. The 
embarrassments of the artificers rendered the progress 
very slow of the work. Beyond this period, the arts 
cannot be traced of civil society. 4. What went ye out 
for to see ? Can you give me wax for to seal this letter ? 
He set out for to go home an hour ago. 5. He was 
afraid of, and wished to shun them. He claimed and 
insisted upon his rights. 6 Will you have the goodness 
to lend to me your grammar ? I will return it on to-mor- 
row. 



§ 51. SYNTAX. 93 

§ 51. Rule IV. Two or more nouns in the sin- 
gular, taken in connexion, require a verb and pro- 
noun in the plural; as, 1. Cato and Cicero were 
learned men, and they loved their country. 2. Ho- 
nour, justice, religion itself, are derided by the profli- 
gate. 3. The king, with the lords and commons, 
constitute the English form of government. 

Observation 1. Nouns are viewed in connexion when they stand together as 
the nominative to the same verb, not separately, but combined, forming a plural 
subject, i. e. a subject consisting of more things than one. Sometimes they are 
joined by the conjunction " and," as in the first example ; sometimes they are 
without a conjunction, as in the 2d ; and sometimes the connexion is formed by 
the preposition " with'' as in the 3d. But in this case, the verb, &c. should be 
plural, only when the words connected by " with " essentially belong to the sub 
ject. When not esssential, but a mere accompaniment, the verb should be singu 
lar ; as, the ship, with her cargo, was lost. 

Obs. 2. But when two names are used to represent one subject, the verb may 
be in the singular ; as, Why is dust and ashes proud. 

Obs. 3. When comparison is expressed or implied, and not combination^ the 
verb should be singular ; as, Caesar, as well as Cicero, was remarkable for elo 
quence. 

EXERCISES. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
Life and death is in the power of the tongue. Wisdom, 
virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. An- 
ger, and impatience is always unreasonable. His polite- 
ness and good disposition was, on failure of their effect, 
entirely changed. By whose power all good and evil is 
distributed. Luxurious living and high pleasures, begets 
a languor and satiety that destroys all enjoyment. Out of 
the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. Leisure 
of life and tranquillity of mind, which fortune and your own 
wisdom has given you, is capable of being better employed. 
Time and tide waits for no man. 

(Obs. 2.) That able scholar and critic have been emi- 
nently useful. Your friend and patron, whose name I have 
forgotten, have just now been enquiring for you. 

(Obs. 3.) I, as well as they, are entitled to redress. 
Perseverance, as well as talents and application, are neces- 
sary to eminence in literary pursuits. But he, as well as 
Lord Give, have been harshly judged by men, who have 
listened to their enemies. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 52. 

§ 52. Rule V. Tioo or more nouns in the sin- 
gular, taken separately, have the verb or pronoun 
in the singular ; as, John, James, or Andrew, in- 
tends to accompany you. 

Remark. — Nouns are viewed separately, when, though they all stand as the 
nominative to the verb, yet either one, exclusive of all the rest, is the subject of 
discourse, as in the above example, or, though all are equally the subject of dis- 
course, yet they are not so in combination, but individually. In this case the 
verb agrees with the last, and is understood to the rest. 

Obs. — Sometimes, however, when the verb affirms, and more especially when 
it denies, of the different nominatives, though they be disjoined by the conjunc- 
tion, it may be put in the plural ; as, Neither you nor I are in fault. This cor- 
responds to the Latin construction, "Id neque ego neque tu fecimus."— Ter. 
Hec. — Grombie's English Syntax, p. 237. 

Separation is usually marked by the disjunctives or and nor, expressed or un- 
derstood, or by prefixing each or every. But each and every, subjoined distribu 
lively to a plural subject, do not affect the verb ; as, They have conspired each 
to recommend the other. 

Rule. — A singular and a plural nominative, separated by a disjunc- 
tive, require a verb in the plural ; as, Neither the captain nor the sailors 
were saved. 

%* The plural nominative should be placed next the verb. 

EXERCISES. 

Either the boy or the girl were present. It must be con 
fessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry in them rob- 
bery or murder. The modest virgin, the prudent wife, or 
the careful matron, are much more serviceable in life than 
petticoated philosophers. Neither precept nor discipline 
are so forcible as example. Man is not such a machine 
as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are 
moved. Every man, woman, and child, were excluded. 
They, every one, pursues his destined course. Each of 
the seasons, as they revolve, give fresh proof of the Divine 
power and goodness. The seasons, each as it revolves, 
gives pleasure to the soul. Neither poverty nor riches was 
injurious to him. They or he was offended. Neither the 
king nor his ministers deserves to be praised. Whether 
one or more was concerned in the business, does not yet 
appear. An ostentatious, a feeble, a harsh, or an obscure 
style, are always faults. Neither the captain, nor the pas- 
sengers, nor any of the crew, was saved. 



§ 53- SYNTAX. 



95 



§ 53. Rule VI. 1. When two or more nomina- 
tives combined are of different persons, the verb and 
pronoun in the plural, prefer the first person to the 
second, and the second to the third ; as, He and / 
shared (first person) it between us. 

2. When nominatives of different persons are 
disjunctively connected^ the verb in the singular 
agrees toith the person next it ; as, Thou or he is 
the author of it. He or / am to blame. 

Rem. — In the order of arrangement in English, the second person is usually 
placed before the third, and the first person is always placed last. 

EXERCISES. 

1. James, and thou, and I, are attached to their coun- 
try. Thou, and the gardner, and the huntsman, must 
share the blame of this business amongst them. My sis- 
ter and I, as well as my brother, are daily employed in 
their respective occupations. While you are playing, my 
brother and I are attentive to their studies. You and I 
will devote your leisure hours to study. Both you and he 
will be disappointed in their object. 

2. Either thou or I art greatly mistaken. He or I is 
sure of this week's prize. Thomas or thou hast spilt the 
ink on my paper. John or I has done it. Thou or he 
art the person who must go on that business. 

Promiscuous Exercises on the Parsing Rules. 

You was there. Was the horses ready. There are a 
flock of geese. In the human species the influence of in- 
stinct and habit are generally assisted by the suggestions 
of reason. His having robbed several men were the cause 
of his punishment. Learning, how much soever it may be 
despised by some, yet men know it to be an acquirement 
of great value. He, not the ministers, control all things. 
These we have extracted from a historian of great merit, 
and are the same that were formerly practised. His wis- 
dom and not his money produce esteem. The Cape of 
Good Hope, as well as many islands in the West Indies, 
are famous for hurricanes. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 54. 

§ 54. Rule VII. 1. When a collective noun con- 
veys the idea of unity, its verb must be singular ; 
as, The class was large. 

2. When a collective noun conveys the idea of 
'plurality, its verb must be plural ; as, My people 
do not consider. They have not known me. 

Rem. — Pronouns referring to collective nouns must in like manner be singular 
or plural, according as the idea of unity or plurality is expressed. 

EXERCISES. 

Stephen's party were entirely broken up. The meet- 
ing were well attended. The people has no opinion of 
its own. Send the multitude away, that it may go and 
buy itself bread. The people were very numerous. A 
company of troops were despatched to the opposite side 
of the river. The people rejoices in what should give 
them sorrow. The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure 
as its chief good. In France, the peasantry goes bare- 
foot, while the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes. 
The British parliament are composed of king, lords, and 
commons. The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. 
The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the 
object of the shepherd's care. When the nation com- 
plain, the rulers should listen to their voice. The regi- 
ment consist of a thousand men. Never were any na- 
tion so infatuated. But this people who knoweth not 
the law is cursed. The shoal of herrings were immense. 
Why do this generation seek after a sign ? The fleet 
were seen sailing up the channel. Mankind is more 
united by the bonds of friendship at present than it was 
formerly. Part of the coin were preserved. The royal 
society are numerous and flourishing. " The lowing 
herd wind slowly round the lea." The noble army of 
martyrs praiseth thee, O God ! The present generation 
possess far greater advantages than the preceding genera- 
tion of men ; they are more enlightened, and they ought 
to be more wise and virtuous. A great number of wo- 
men were present. The audience takes this in good* part. 
All mankind composes one family. The public is re- 
spectfully informed. 



§ 55. SYNTAX. 97 

§ 55. Rule VIII. 1. Every adjective qualifies a 
substantive expressed or understood : as, A good 
boy. 

2. Adjectives of number, and the pronouns this 
and that, agree with their substantives in number ; 
as, This man ; that woman ; these things. 

Obs. Adjectives should not be used as adverbs. The distinction 
is, adjectives qualify nouns ; adverbs modify verbs adjectives and 
other adverbs ; thus, "He is miserable poor," should be, " he is miser- 
ably poor. 

Remark 1. Adjectives of number may be denominated singular or plural, 
according as in their signification they refer to one, or more than one. 

Rem. 2. Adjectives joined with the singular, are the ordinal numbers, first, se- 
cond, last, &c ; one, each, every, either, neither, much, with its comparative 
more, enough, whole* : see § 18, 2, Obs. 1. 

Stili it is correct to say, the first four lines ; the last six verses ; every twelve 
years, &c, because the things spoken of are considered as one aggregate, viz. as 
the first portion consisting of four lines. Every period of twelve years, &c. 

Rem. 3. Adjectives joined with the plural only, are all cardinal numbers above 
one, the words few, many, with its comparative more, both, several, enow. 
Many is sometimes construed with a singular noun ; as, " Full many a flower," &c, 

Rem. 4. The adjectives, all, no, some, other may be joined with a singular or 
plural noun according to the sense. 

Rem. 5. "This here," " that there," for this and that; and " them," " them 
there," for these and those, are vulgarisms. 

Rem. 6. This means and that means refer to one cause ; these means, those 
means, to more than one, § 10, 5 Note. Amends is used in the same way as 
means. 

EXERCISES. 
This bovs are diligent. I have not seen him this ten 
days. Those sort of people fear nothing. These soldiers 
are remarkable tall. They behaved the noblest. It is 
uncommon good . Them books are almost new. Give 
me that there knife. These kind of favours did real in- 
jury. There is six foot water in the hold. I have no 
interests but that of truth and virtue. You will find the 
remark in the second or third pages. Charles was ex- 
travagant, and by those means became poor. The scholars 
were attentive and industrious, and by that means ac- 
quired knowledge. Let each esteem others better than 
themselves. Every person, whatever be their station, 
are bound by the laws of morality and religion. Are 
either of these men your friend '? 

10 G 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 56. 

§ 56. Rule IX. When two persons or things 
are contrasted, that refers to the first mentioned, 
and this to the last ; as. Virtue and vice are as op- 
posite to each other as light and darkness ; that 
enobles the mind, this debases it. 

Remark. Former and latter, one and other, are often used instead of that and 
this. Former and latter are alike in both numbers ; one and other refer to the 
singular only. That and this, as applied under this rule, are seldom applied to 
persons ; but former and latter are applied to persons or things indiscriminately. 
In most cases the repetition of the noun is preferable to either of them. 

Obs. Hence in the use of the demonstratives when no contrast is expressed, 
" this" and " these" refer to things present or just mentioned : " that" and 
M those" to things distant or formerly mentioned. Thus, " they cannot be sepa- 
rated from the subject, and for that reason," &c. should be, " and for this rea- 
son," &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Wealth and poverty are both temptations to man ; this 
tends to excite pride, that discontentment. Religion rai- 
ses men above themselves, irreligion sinks them beneath 
the brutes ; that binds them down to a poor pitiable speck 
of perishable earth, this opens for them a prospect to the 
skies. Rex and Tyrannus are of very different charac- 
ters ; that rules his people by laws to which they con- 
sent, this by his absolute will and power ; this is called 
freedom, that tyranny. More rain falls in the first two 
summer months than in the first two winter ones ; but it 
makes a much greater shew in the one than in the other, 
because there is a much slower evaporation. Health is 
more valuable than great possessions, and yet the latter 
is often sacrificed in the pursuit of the former. Exercise 
and temperance are the best promoters of health : that 
prevents disease ; this often dissipates it. 

Self-love, the spring of motion, moves the soul ; 
Reason's comparing balance rules the whole : 
Man, but for this, no action could attend ; 
Man, but for that, were active to no end. 

(Ex. on Obs.) That very subject which we are now 
discussing, is still involved in mystery. This vessel of 
which you spoke yesterday, sailed for the West Indies 
this morning at 1 o'clock. 



§ 57. SYNTAX. 99 

§ 57. Rule X. 1. Pronouns agree loith the 
nouns for which they stand, in gender, number, 
and person ; as, John is here ; he came an hour 
ago. Every tree is known by its fruit. 

2. When a pronoun refers to two words of dif- 
ferent persons connected by a copidative conjunc- 
tion, it becomes plural, and prefers the first person 
to the second, and the second to the third ; as, John 
and I will do our duty. 

Remark. 1. For an exception to this rule, see $ 15, 4. 

Rem. 2. The word containing the answer to a question must be in the same 
case with the word that asks it ; as, Who said that ? I (said it.) Whose books 
are these ! John's. 

Rem. 3. It is improper, in the progress of a sentence, to express the same ob- 
ject by pronouns of different numbers or genders ; as, I laboured long to make 
thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude. It should be either, u to 
make you happy, or, thou rewardest." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Answer not a fool according to her folly. A stone 
is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a fool's wrath is 
heavier than it both. Take handfuls of ashes of the fur- 
nace, and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven in the sight 
of Pharaoh ; and it shall become small dust. The crown 
had it in their power to give such rewards as they thought 
proper. The fruit tree beareth fruit after his kind. Re- 
becca took goodly raiment and put them upon Jacob. 

2. Thou and he shared it between them. James and 
I are attentive at their studies. You and he are dili- 
gent in reading their books ; therefore they are good boys. 

(Rem. 2.) Who betrayed her companion ? Not me. 
Who revealed the secrets he ought to have concealed ? 
Not him ; it was her. Whom did you meet ? He and 
his brother. Whose pen is that ? Mine's. Who bought 
that book ? Him. 

(Rem. 3.) Virtue forces her way through obscurity, 
and sooner or later it is sure to be rewarded. Thou hast 
ever shewn thyself my real friend, and your kindness to 
me I can never forget. 

You draw the inspiring breath of ancient song, 

Till nobly rises emulous thy own. 

Thou, goddess — mother, with our sire comply ; 

If you submit, the thunderer stands appeased. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §58 

§ 58. Rule XL The relative agrees with its an- 
tecedent in number and person, and the verb agrees 
with it accordingly ; as, Thou who speakest, The 
book which was lost. 

See observations on the relative and interrogative, § 16 &. 17. 

Remark 1. The antecedent, or that to which the relative refers, may be a noun, 
or pronoun, or clause of a sentence. 

Rem. 2. Who is applied to persons, or things personified ; which, to all other 
objects, — sometimes to children — to collective nouns composed of persons, when 
unity is expressed ; and also to persons in asking questions. (§ 17; Obs 1, 2,4.) 

Rem. 3. The relative that is used instead of who or which ; — 

1. After adjectives in the superlative degree,— after the words same and all, — 
and often after no, some, and any. 

2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, The man and 
the horse that we saw yesterday. 

3. After the interrogative who ; and often after the personal pronouns ; as, 
Who that has any sense of religion, would have argued thus 1 I that speak in 
righteousness. 

EXERCISES. 

1 & 2. Those which seek wisdom, will certainly find 
her- This is the friend which I love. That is the vice 
whom I hate. This moon who rose last night had not 
yet filled her horns. Blessed is the man which walketh 
in wisdom's ways. Thou who has been a witness of the 
fact, can give an account of it. I am happy in the friend 
which I have long proved. The court who gives cur- 
rency to manners, ought to be exemplary. The tiger is 
a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. Who of 
these men came to his assistance ? The child whom I 
saw, is dead. 

A train of heroes followed through the field, 
Which bore by turns great Ajax's sev'nfold shield. 
3. It is the best which can be got. Solomon was the 
wisest man whom ever the world saw. It is the same 
picture which you saw before. " And all which beauty, 
all which wealth e'er gave, await alike the inevitable 
hour." The lady and lapdog which we saw at the win- 
dow, have disappeared. The men and things which he 
lias studied, have not contributed to the improvement of 
his morals. I who speak unto thee, am he. Sidney was 
one of the wisest and most active governors which Ire- 
land had enjoyed for several years. He has committed 
the same fault which I condemned yesterday. 



§ 59* SYNTAX. 101 

Rule XI. Continued. 

§ 59. Special rules and observations. 

Rule I. The relative, with its clause, should be placed as near as pos- 
sible to its antecedent, to prevent ambiguity ; thus, "The boy beat his 
companion, whom every body believed incapable of doing mischief," 
should be, " The boy, whom every body believed incapable of doing 
mischief, beat his companion." Hence, 

Rule II. When the relative is preceded by two loords referring to 
the same thing, its proper antecedent is the one next it ; as, Thou art the 
man who was engaged in that business. 

Observation. The relative is sometimes in such sentences made to agree im- 
properly with the first ; " / am a man who am a Jew.'' This sentence, accord- 
ing to its construction, should be arranged thus ; I, who am a Jew, am a man. 
In such sentences care should always be taken to ascertain to which word the 
relative and its clause belongs, and to arrange the sentence accordingly. In this, 
The sense is the only guide. 

Rule III. The antecedent, if a pronoun of the third pefrson, is often, 
understood ivhen no emphasis is implied, and is always included in the 
compound relatives, whoever, whosoever, &c. (§16, Obs, 3.) 

Obsei-vation. The relative is sometimes understood, especially in colloquial 
language; as, "The friend I visited yesterday, is dead to-day," for "The friend 
whom I visited," &c. 

EXERCISES. 

I. The king dismissed his minister, without any inquiry, 
who had never before committed so unjust an action. The 
soldier with a single companion, who passed for the bravest 
man in the regiment, offered his services. Thou art a 
friend indeed, who hast relieved me in this dangerous cri- 
sis. 

II. Thou art the friend that hast often relieved me, and 
that hast not deserted me now in the time of peculiar need. 
I am the man who command you. I am the person who 
adopt that sentiment, and maintains it. Thou art he who 
driedst up the Red Sea before thy people Israel. 

III. He whoever steals my purse, steals trash. Those 
whom he would, he slew ; and those whom he would he 
kept alive. The man whosoever committeth sin, is the 
servant of sin. To them whomsoever he saw in distress, 
he imparted relief. 

10* 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 60. 

§ 60. Rule XII. Substantives denoting the same 
person or thing, agree in case ; as, Cicero the Ora- 
tor. 

Words thus used are said to be in apposition. 

Rem. 3. Two or more nouns, forming one complex name, or a name and a ti- 
tle, with the definite article and a numeral adjective prefixed, have the plural ter- 
mination annexed to the last only ; as, the two Miss Hays. The three Miss 
Browns. The two Dr. Monroes. Of married ladies, the name only is pluralized. 

Rem. 2. But when used without the numeral, the plural termination is annex- 
ed to theirs* ; as, Messrs. Thompson. Misses Hamilton.— § 10, 1. 

Obs. The word containing the answer to a question, being in the same con- 
struction with the word that asks it, must always be in the same case : as, Of 
whom were the books bought 1 Of Johnson, him who lives in the Strand. 

EXERCISES. 

The chief of the princes, him who defied the bravest of 
the enemy, was assassinated by a dastardly villain. He 
was the son of the Rev. Dr. West, he who published Pin- 
dar at Oxford. 

(Rem. 1, 2.) The two Misses Louisa Howard are very 
amiable young ladies. The two Messrs. Websters left 
town yesterday. The two Messrs. Websters will return 
to-morrow. The Doctors Stevensons have been success- 
ful in performing a very difficult operation. The two Doc- 
tors Ramsays have returned. The Mrs. Townsend were 
there, as well as the Mrs. Bay. 

(Obs.) Of whom were the articles bought? Of a gro- 
cer, he who resides near the Mansion-House. Was any 
person besides the grocer present ? Yes, both him and his 
clerk were present. Who was the money paid to ? To 
the grocer. Who counted it 1 Both the clerk and him. 
Who said that 1 Me. Whose books are these ? Her 
who went out a few minutes ago. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING RULES. 

Two and two makes four. Dew and hoar frost is more 
copious in valleys than it is in elevated situations. Either 
his gratitude or his compassion were roused. Neither he 
nor I intends to write on that subject. In the human spe- 
cies the influence of instinct and habit are generally assisted 
by the suggestions of reason. Thomas said that James 
and me might go. Godliness, with contentment, are great 
gain. Either avarice, or the cares of this life, has misled 
him. 



§ 61. SYNTAX. 103 

§ 61. Rule XIII. A verb may have the same 
case after it as before it, when both words refer to 
the same thing ; as ; It is I. I took it to be him. 

Rem. 1. Verbs having the same case after them as before them, are chiefly the 
verb " to be," " to become," and some other neuter verbs, and passive verbs of 
naming, choosing, appointing, and the like; as, He shall be called John. He be- 
came the slave of irregular passions. Stephen died a Martyr. In these examples, 
the case of the subject determines the case of the predicate according to the rule. 
But, 

Rem. 2. In substantive phrases the infinitive or participle of a neuter verb 
without a subject is followed by a substantive or adjective taken indefinitely, 
and the substantive is in the objective case; (§ 40. R. 23. Obs. 2.) as, "To be tke 
slave of passion, is of all slavery the most wretched." " His dying intestate caused 
all this trouble." " It is our duty to be obedient to our parents." 

Rem. 3. In English almost any verb may be used as a copula between its sub- 
ject and an adjective as a part, or at least as a modification of the predicate ; 
as, "It tastes good," "The wind blows hard," "1 remember right," "He feels 
sick," " He strikes hard," "He drinks deep," &c. In such expressions the ad- 
jective so much resembles an adverb in its meaning, that they are usually parsed 
as such. This, however, is so common a phraseology in our language, and espe- 
cially in poetry, that they should rather be considered as adjectives in fact as 
well as in form, though used in a way somewhat peculiar. These expressions 
ecern to be analogous to the Latin " insons feci," " I did it in n ocently ; " " accur- 
runt keti," " They run up joyfully." Or the Greek dcpiKSTo SevTcpaios, he crnno 
on the second day. 

EXERCISES. 

It was me who wrote the letter. Be not afraid, it is me. 
I am certain that it could not have been her. It is them 
that deserve most blame. You would undoubtedly act the 
same part if you were him. I understood it to be he. It 
may have been him, but there is no proof of it. It may 
have been him or them who did it. 

Who do you think him to be 1 Whom do men say that 
I am ? She is the person who I understood it to have been. 
Let him be whom he may, I am not afraid of him. Was 
it me that said so ? It is impossible to be them. I am 
certain it was not him. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell me 
what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the schol- 
ars is reading. Trust not him, whom, you know, is disho- 
nest. I love no interests but that of truth and virtue. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 62. 

§ 62. Rule XIV. When two nouns come together, 
denoting the possessor and the thing possessed, the 
first is put in the possessive case ; as, John's book ; 
on eagle's wings. 

Observation. The latter or governing substantive is frequently understood ; as 
I found him at the stationer's, (viz. shop or house.) 

$5~ For observations on the possessive pronoun, see § 18, 1, Obs. 1. 

Remark 1. The preposition of, with the objective, is generally equivalent to 
the possessive case, and is often used in preference to it. Thus, " In the name of 
the army," is better than " In the army's name." Sometimes, however, these 
two modes of expression are not equivalent ; thus, " The Lord's day," and 
"The day of the Lord," convey ideas entirely different. § 12, 3. 

Rem. 2. Sometimes " of" is used before the possessive governing a substantive 
understood after it ; as, This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's, (viz. discov- 
eries.) "This is a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton," expresses the same idea. 
These two modes of expression, however, sometimes convey quite different ideas* ; 
thus, " A picture of my friend," means a portrait of him. " A picture of my 
friend's," means a picture belonging to him. Under both these remarks it may 
be observed as a general 

Rule. In the use of the possessive, or of its equivalent, " of," with 
the objective, care should be taken to avoid harshness on the one hand 
and ambiguity on the other. 

EXERCISES. 

It is Pompeys pillar. Seek Virtues reward. A mans 
manners frequently influence his fortune. My ancestors 
virtue is not mine. Asa his heart was perfect with the 
Lord. A mothers tenderness and a father's care are na- 
tures gifts for mans advantage. Helen her beauty was the 
cause of Troy its destruction. Longinus his treatise on 
the sublime. Christ his sake. 

(Rem, 1, 2.) The Commons vote was decidedly against 
the measure. The Lord's house adjourned at a late hour. 
The Representative's house convened at 12 o'clock. He 
married my daughter's husbands sister. She married the 
brother of the wife of my son. The Lord's day will come 
as a thief in the night. The next day of the Lord came 
all the people to hear the word. That is a good likeness 
of Do Witt Clinton's. He is the only son of his mother's. 
The court's decision. I beg the favour of your acceptance 
of a copy of a view of the manufactories of the West Riding 
of Yorkshire. The report of the sickness of the son of 
the king of England, excited the nation's fears. 



§ 63. SYNTAX. 105 

$ 63. Observations on Rule XIV. 

1. When several nouns come together in the possessive case, im- 
plying common possession, the sign of the possessive ('s) is annexed 
to the last, and understood to the rest; as, " Jane and Lucy's books, ,; 
i. e. books the common property of Jane and Lucy. But if common 
possession is not implied, or if several words intervene, the sign of the 
possessive should be annexed to each ; as, " Jane's and Lucy's books," 
i. e. books, some of which are Jane's and others Lucy's. " This 
gained the king's, as well as the people's approbation." 

2. When a name is complex, consisting of more terms than one, the 
sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, "Julius Csssar's 
Commentaries.'' " John the Baptist's head." " His brother Philip's 
wife." "The Bishop of London's charge." 

3. When a short explanatory term is joined to a name, the sign of 
the possessive may be annexed to either ; as, I called at Smith's the 
bookseller, or, at Smith the bookseller's. But if, to such a phrase, the 
governing substantive is added, the sign of the possessive must be an- 
nexed to the last ; as, "I called at Smith the bookseller's shop." 

4. If the explanatory circumstance be complex, or consisting of more 
terms than one, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the 
name or first substantive ; as, " This Psalm is David's, the king, priest, 
and prophet of the peoole." " That book is Smith's, the bookseller in 
Maiden Lane." 

5. When two nouns in the possessive are governed by different 
words, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each ; as, "He 
took refuge at the governor's, the king's representative," i. e. at the 
" Governor's house." 

6. The s after the apostrophe is omitted, when the first noun has 
the sound of 5 in each of its two last syllables, and the second noun 
begins with s; as, For righteousness' sake, &c. (§ 12, 2.) In other 
cases, such omission would generally be improper ; as, James' book, 
Miss' shoes ; instead of James's book, Miss's shoes. 

7. A clause cf a sentence should never come between the posses- 
sive case and the word by which it is governed ; thus, " She began to 
extol the farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding," should 
be, "She began to extol the excellent understanding of the farmer, as 
she called him." 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* § 63. 

Rule XIV. Continued. 
§ 63. Exercises on Observations. 

1. William's and Mary's reign. This is your father's 
mother's and brother's advice. Peter's John's and An- 
drew's occupation was that of fishermen. He asked his 
father, as well as his mother's advice. John and Robert's 
boots fit them very well. The Betsey and the Speedwell's 
cargoes were both damaged. 

2. Jack's the Giant killer's wonderful exploits. The 
Bishop's of Landaff's excellent work. During Charles's 
the second's reign. The Lord Mayor's of London author- 
ity. That carriage is the Lord Mayor's of London. 

3. The books were left at Brown's the bookseller's. I 
left him at Mayell's the hatter's shop. Thorburn's the 
seedsman store is now open. 

4. The books were left at Brown the bookseller and sta- 
tioner's. I left the parcel at Johnson, a respectable book- 
seller, a worthy man, and an old friend's. I reside at 
Lord Stormont, my old patron and benefactor's. Whose 
glory did he emulate ? He emulated Caesar, the greatest 
general of antiquity's. 

5. That book is Thompson the Tutor's assistant. We 
spent an agreeable hour at Wilson the Governor's deputy, 
and on our return called at Mr. Smith little Henry's father* 

6. James' father arrived yesterday and Mr. Spence' ser- 
vant came with him. Charles' books are completely spoiled. 
For conscience's sake Miss' books have been sent home. 

7. They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he 
was called, senseless and extravagant conduct. This is 
Paul's the christian hero and great apostle of the Gentiles 
advice. Beyond this the arts cannot be traced of civil 
society. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON THIS RULE. 

The emperor and the Dukes cavalry were engaged. 
This is for consciences sake. Escape Atrides ire. He 
bought the articles at Wilson's the druggist's. William and 
John's wives were present. The estate of William's was 
much encumbered. 



§ 64. syntax. 107 

§ 64. Rule XV. When the present participle is 
used as a noun, (§ 30, 7.) a noun or pronoun be- 
fore it should be put in the possessive case : as, 
Much depends on your pnpiVs composing, but more 
on his reading frequently. 

Remark 1. If not used as a noun, the noun or pronoun before it may be in any 
case which the construction requires; as, I see men walking. These two modes 
of expression, in many cases, convey very different ideas, and therefore care should 
be taken not to confound them ; thus, u Wiint do you think of my horse running 
to-day ?-" means, Do j"ou think I should let him run 1 Rut, " What do you think 
of my horse's running to-day V means, he has run, do you think he ran well 1 

Rem. 2. The present participle, with a possessive before it, sometimes admits 
of after it, and sometimes not. 

Rem. 3. When a preposition follows the participle, of is inadmissable : as, His 
depending on promises, proved his ruin. His neglecting to study when young y 
rendered him ignorant all his life 

EXERCISES. 

What is the reason of this person dismissing his ser- 
vant so hastily? I remember it being done. This jea- 
lousy accounts for Hall charging the Duke of Gloucester 
with the murder of Prince Edward. He being a great 
man did not make him a happy man. Much depends on 
the rule being observed. Richard observing the rule will 
be the means of him avoiding error. What do you think 
of my horse running to-day? did he run well? 

(Rem. 1.) That man's running so fast, is in danger of 
falling. A youth's pursuing his studies with diligence 
and perseverance, can hardly fail of success. What do 
you think of my horse's running to-day ? will it he safe ? 

(Rem. 2.) Our approving their had conduct may en- 
courage them to become worse. For his avoiding that 
precipice he is indebted to his friend's care. Their ob- 
serving the rules prevented errors. By his studying of 
the scriptures he became wise. Their condemning of 
the innocent and acquitting of the guilty will cover them 
with infamy. Heraldry teaches the knowledge of those 
marks of honour called coats of arms, and the method of 
blazoning of them and marshalling of them : blazoning 
dignifies the displaying the several emblems and colours 
of an achievement in proper terms ; marshalling, is the 
joining divers arms in one shield. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. § 65. 

§ 65. Rule. XVI. When the present participle, 
used as a noun, has an article before it, it should 
have the preposition of 5 after it : as^ In the keeping 
of his commandments there is a great reward. 

Remark 1. The sense will often be the same if both the article and the preposi- 
tion be omitted : but the one should not be omitted without the other : thus, In 
keeping his commandments, &c. When a possessive case or a possessive pro- 
noun precedes, of usually follows. See § 64, Rem. 2. 

Rem. 2. In some cases, however, these two modes express very different ideas, 
and therefore attention to the sense is necessary ; as, He confessed the whole in 
the hearing of three witnesses, and the court spent an hour in hearing their de 
position. 

To prevent ambiguity in such cases, it might be well to observe the following 

Rule. — When the participle expresses something of which the noun 
following is the doer, it should have the article and preposition ; as, "It 
was said in the hearing of the witness." When it expresses something 
of which the noun following is not the doer hut the object, both should be 
omitted; as, the Court spent some time in hearing the witness. 5 * 

EXERCISES. 

Learning of languages is very difficult. The learning 
any thing speedily, requires great application. By the 
exercising our faculties, they are improved. By observ- 
ing of these rules, you will avoid mistakes. By the ob- 
taining wisdom, thou wilt command esteem. This was a 
betraying the trust reposed in him. The not attending to 
this rule, is the cause of a very common error. He con- 
fined all his philosophy to the suffering ills patiently. 
This order so critically given, occasioned the gaining the 
battle. This was, in fact, converting the deposites to 
his own use. Propriety of pronunciation is the giving 
to every word that sound, w 7 hich the most polite usage of 
the language appropriates to it. 

(Rem. 2.) At hearing the ear they shall obey. Be- 
cause of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord ab- 
horred them. He expressed the pleasure he had in the 
hearing of the philosopher. In the hearing of the will 
read, and in the examining of sundry papers, much time 
was spent. 



; For the participle in ing used absolutely, see $ 80, Obs. 2. 



§ 66. SYNTAX. 109 

§ 66. Rule XVII. The perfect participle^ and 
not the imperfect tense, should be used after the verbs 
have and be : as, I have written^ (not wrote.) I am 
chosen. 

Remark 1. The perfect participle should not be used instead of the imperfect 
tense : Thus it is improper to say " he begun," for " he began, " he run," for 
" he ran," " he done," for " he did ; " " he seen," for " he saw." 

Rem 2. The present participle active, and not the perfect, is used after the verb 
to be. to express the continued suffering of an action ; as, " The house is build- 
not (i being built." When the participle in -ing has not a passive sense, the 
idea must be expressed by means of the active voice. Thus we do not say " the 
book is now reading" (nor " the book is now being read,") but "he (or she, &c.) 
is now reading the book." See § 30 and 31 

EXERCISES. 
I would have wrote a letter. He had mistook his true 
interest. The coat had no seam, but was wove througnout. 
The French language is spoke in every part of Europe. 
His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight opposi- 
tion. The horse was stole from the pasture. They have 
chose the part of honour and virtue. She was shewed into 
the drawing room. He has broke the bottle. Some fell 
by the way side and "was trode down. The work w 7 as very 
well execute. Philosophers have often mistook the true 
source of happiness. He has chose to ride. He drunk 
too much. I am almost froze. He has forsook us. The 
desk was shook. It was w r ell wrote. 

1. By too eager pursuit he run a great risk of being dis- 
appointed. He soon begun to weary of having nothing to 
do. He was greatly heated, and drunk with avidity. The 
bending hermit here a prayer begun. And end with sor- 
rows as they first begun. 

A second deluge learning thus o'er-run, ^ 

And the Monks finished what the Goths begun. 

These men done more than could have been expected. 
There can be no mistake, for I seen them do it. 

2. The work was then being printed, and it was expected 
to be published in a few days. That house has been being 
built for six months ; it is now being plastered, and will be 
finished soon. He is now being shaved at the barber's shop. 
A place is now being prepared for us. The w T orld was then 
circumnavigating by Captain Cook. 

11 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 67. 

§ 67. Rule XVIII. 1. One verb governs another 
in the infinitive mood ; as, I desire to learn. 

2. To, the sign of the infinitive, is not used after 
the verbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and 
let, in the active voice, nor after let, in the passive. 

Also sometimes after perceive, behold, observe, 
have, and know. 

Remark 1. The infinitive after a verb :'s governed by it only when the attribute 
expressed by the infinitive is either the subject or object of the other verb. In 
such expressions as "I read to learn," the infinitive is not governed by " I read," 
but depends on the phrase " in order to " understood. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive is also used sometimes independently of the rest of the 
sentence, like the imperfect participle ; (§ 80, Obs. 3.) as, To confess the truth, I 
was in fault. 

Rule. — The infinitive mood is often governed by nouns, adjectives 
and participles, and sometimes stayids after as corresponding ioith so ; 
as, They have a desire to learn : Worthy to be praised j Wishing to 
excel : Be so good as to read this letter. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Strive learn. They obliged him do it. Newton did 
not wish obtrude his discoveries on the public. His pene- 
tration and diligence seemed vie with each other. 

2. They need not to call upon her. I dare not to pro- 
ceed so hastily. I have seen some young persons to con- 
duct themselves very discreetly. He bade me to go home. 
It is the difference of their conduct which makes us to ap- 
prove the one and to reject the other. We heard the thun- 
der to roll. He felt the pain to abate. I would have you 
to take more care. He was reluctantly made obey. They 
were heard say it in a large company. They were seen 
pass the house. He was let to go. I have observed some 
satirists to use the term. 

Promiscuous. — He writes as the best authors would have 
wrote, had they writ upon the same subject. The enemies 
who we have most to fear, are those of our own hearts. 
They that honour me, them will I honour- Good as the 
cause is, it is one from which numbers are deserted. The 
number was now amounted to fifty. They were descended 
from a noble family. 



§68. SYNTAX. Ill 

§ 68. Rule XIX. 1. When doubt and futurity 
are both implied, the subjunctive mood is used ; as, 
Though he fall, (i. e. at some future time,) he shall 
arise again. 

2. When doubt only, and not futurity, is implied* 
the indicative is used ; as, If he speaks (i. e. now,) 
as he thinks, he may be safely trusted. 

Remark. Doubt is usually expressed by the conjunctions if though,, unless, 
except, whether, &c. Whether futurity is implied or not, must be ascertained 
from the context In accurate composition, of course the mood employed will 
direct to the meaning of the sentence ; thus, " I will do it if the master desires 
me," (i. e. at present.) Here there is uncertainty only whether he does desire me, 
41 1 will do it if the master desire me," (i. e. at a future time.) Here there is un- 
certainty whether he will desire me. or not. Consequently there is both doubt 
and futurity. If and though, &c. when referring to what is fixed and certain, are 
equivalent to " notwithstanding, 1 '' and consequently the verb follows in the in- 
dicative ; as, " Though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. 

Rule I. Lest, and thai annexed to a command, require the subjunc- 
tive mood; as, Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty. Take heed 
that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad. 

Rule II. If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires 
the subjunctive mood; as, If he do but touch the hills they shall smoke. 
When future time is not expressed, the indicative ought to be used* 

Obs. The subjunctive is used to express a wish or desire ; as, "I 
wish that I were at home." " O that he were wise." 

EXERCISES, 

If a man smites his servant and he die, he shall surely 
be put to death. If he acquires riches they will corrupt 
his mind. Though he be high he hath respect to the lowly. 
If thou live virtuously, thou art happy. If he does promise 
he will certainly perform. O that his heart was tender. 
As the governess were present the children behaved pro- 
perly. Though he falls he shall not be utterly cast down. 
If he is at home to-morrow, give him the letter. 

(Rule I.) Despise not any condition lest it happens to 
be thy own. Let him that is sanguine take heed lest he 
miscarries. Take care that thou speakest the truth. 

(Rule II.) If he is but discreet he will succeed. If he 
be but in health I am content. If he does but intimate bis 
desire, it will produce obedience. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 69. 

§ 69. Rule XX. 1. Conjunctions couple the same 
-moods and tenses of verbs ; as. Do good, and seek 
peace. 

2. Conjunctions couple the same cases of nouns 
and pronouns ; as, He and I are happy. 

Remark 1. Verbs in the same mood and tense, connected by a conjunction, 
must also be in the same form. For the different forms of the verb, see § 24. 

Hem. 2. When conjunctions connect different moods and tenses, the nomina- 
tive is generally repeated ; as, He may return, but he will not remain. 

Rem. 3. When a contrast is stated, with but, not, though, &c. the nominative 
is usually repeated, even with the same mood and tense ; as, You can not ride. 
but you may walk. 

Observation. After verbs of doubting, fearing and denying, the conjunction 
that should be used, and not lest, but, but that ; as, You do not doubt that he is 
honest, (not, but that, &c.) They feared that they would not return, (not lest, 
&c.) You do not deny that he has some ability, (not, but he has,) &c. That is 
frequently understood ; as, We were desirous (that) you would return. 

Rem. 4. The relative usually follows than in the objective case, even when the 
nominative goes before; as, Alfred, than whom a greater king never reigned. 
This anomaly it is difficult to explain. Most probabl}-, " than," at first had the 
force of a preposition, which it now retains only when followed by the relative. 

EXERCISES. 

1. He reads and wrote well. Anger glances into the 
breast of a wise man but will rest only in the bosom of 
fools. If he understand the subject and attends to it he 
can scarcely fail of success. Professing regard and to act 
differently mark a base mind. 

2. He or me must go. Neither he nor her can attend. 
Tou and us enjoy many privileges. My father and him 
were very intimate. He is taller than me. I am not so 
wise as him. She was six years older than me. You may 
as lawfully preach as them that do. 

1. We often overlook the blessings we possess, and are 
searching after those which are out of our reach. Did he 
not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee to forgive him ? 

2 & 3. Rank may confer influence, but will not neces- 
sarily produce virtue. She was proud though now humble. 
He is not rich but respectable. Our season of improve- 
ment is short, and whether used or not will soon pass away. 
I have been young, but now am old. 

(Obs.) We can not question but this confederacy must 
have been a source of friendship and attachment. We 
were apprehensive lest some accident had happened, 



§ 70. SYNTAX. 113 

§ 70. Rule XXI. Some conjunctions and ad- 
verbs have their corresponding conjunctions ; thus, 

Neither requires nor after it; as, Neither he nor his brother was in. 

Though, yet ; as, Though he was rich, yet for our sakes. &c. 

Whether, or ; Whether he go or stay. 

Either^ cr ; I w r iil either write or send. 

Jls, ■ as ; (expressing equality) Mine is as good as yours. 

..is, 50 ; (expressing equality) As the stars, so shall thy seed be. 

$ 0j as • (with a negative expressing inequality; He is not so 

wise as his brother. 

So, that ; (expressing consequence) I am so weak that I cannot 

walk. 

Not only, — hut also ; Not only his property, but also his life was in dan 

ger. 

If, then ; (in reasoning) If he can do it, then he will do it. 

Note, As and so in the antecedent member of a comparison are properly ad 
verbs.— § 34, 4, 

Rem, The infinitive is often used after as corresponding to so ; as, "I must be so 
plain as to tell you your faults." 

Note. The Poets frequently use Or — or, for Either— or and Nor — nor, for 
Neither — nor. In prose, Not — nor, is often used for Neither — nor. The yet af 
ter though is often properly suppressed. Or does not require either before, when 
the one word is a mere explanation of the other ; as, It is six feet or one fathom 
deep. In other cases, when either is not used, it may be supplied. 

EXERCISES. 
It is neither cold or hot. It is so clear as I need not 
explain it, The relations are so uncertain as that they 
require much examination. The one is equally deserv- 
ing as the other. I must be so candid to own that I 
have been mistaken. He would not do it himself nor let 
me do it. He was as angry as he could not speak. So 
as thy days so shall thy strength be. Though he slay 
me so will I trust in him. He must go himself or send 
his servant. There is no condition so secure as cannot 
admit of change. He is not as eminent and as much es- 
teemed as he thinks himself to be. Neither despise the 
poor or envy the rich, for the one dieth so as the other. 
As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 
His raiment was so white as snow. He must be as can- 
did as to say so. There was no man so sanguine, who 
did not apprehend some ill consequences. The dog in 
the manger would not eat the hay himself, nor suffer the 
ox to do it. He was so fat he could hardly walk.— 
Neither despise or oppose what thou dost not understand. 

11* H 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. §71* 

§ 71. Rule XXII. The comparative degree 
and the pronoun other require than after them 1 and 
such requires as ; as 5 Greater than I ; No other 
than he ; Such as do well. 

Such meaning a consequence, or so great requires that after it. 

RuLE.— lVhen two objects arc compared, the comparative is generally 
used; but when more than two, the superlative ; as, James is older than 
John. Mary is the wisest of them all. 

Remark 1. Sometimes, however, the superlative is used when only two objects 
are compared, as it is frequently more agreeable to the ear, and it cannot injure 
the sense ; thus. He is the weakest of the two. 

Rem. 2. A comparison in which more than two is concerned may be expressed 
by the comparative as well as by the superlative ; and in some cases better : but 
the comparative considers the objects compared as belonging to different classes ; 
while the superlative compares tnem as included in one class. The comparative 
is used thus ; " Greece was more polished than any other nation of antiquity." Here 
Greece stands by herself, as opposed to the other nations of antiquity. She 
was none of the other nations : She was more polished than they. The same 
idea is expressed by the superlative when the word other is left out. Thus, 
" Greece was the most polished nation of antiquity." Here to Greece is assigned the 
highest place in the class of objects among which she is numbered — the nations of 
antiquity : she is one of them. This distinction should be carefully observed. The 
comparative is sometimes used in the same way ; as, He is the taller of the two. 

EXERCISES. 

He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 
Be ready to succour such persons who need thy assist- 
ance. They had no sooner risen but they applied them- 
selves to their studies. These savage people seemed to 
have no other element but war. Such men that act 
treacherously ought to be avoided. He gained nothing 
farther by his speech, but only to be commended for his 
eloquence. This is none other but the gate of Paradise. 
Such sharp replies that cost him his life. To trust in 
him is no more but to acknowledge his power. 

(Rule.) James is the wisest of the two. Of the three, 
Jane is the weaker. (Rem. 2.) Chimborazo is higher 
than any other mountain in Europe. Eve was the fair- 
est of all her daughters. I understood him the best of 
all others who spoke on the subject. Solomon was wiser 
than any of the ancient kings. China has a greater 
population than any nation on earth. London is the 
most populous of any city in France. Spain possessed 
more merchant ships than any nation in Europe. Jacob 
loved Joseph more than all his children. 



§V2. B¥HTAX. 115 

§ 72. Rule XXIII. Double comparatives and 
superlatives are improper ; Thus we ought not to 
say, "more better," "most better," but "better," 
« best," 

Obs. It is improper to compare adjectives whose signification does not admit 
of increase or diminution, (§ 13, Obs. 4.) Of this kind are true, perfect, uni- 
versal, chief, extreme, supreme, &c, which have in themselves a superlative 
sense. When comparison of these and similar words is admitted, as is sometimes 
done, they must be understood in a limited sense. Such adjectives as superior, 
inferior, though they imply comparison, are not in the comparative degree, and 
are never construed as such, but have to after them. 

EXERCISES, 

It argued *he most sineerest candor to make such an 
acknowledgement. After the most strictest sect of our 
religion I lived a Pharisee. He is possessed of a more 
serener temper. 'Tis more easier to build two chimneys, 
than to maintain one. The tongue is like a race horse 
which runs the faster the lesser weight it carries. The 
nightingales voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 

His assertion was most untrue. His work was per- 
fect ; his brother's more perfect, and his father's the most 
perfect of all. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on 
man, and should be his chiefest desire. His most ex- 
treme vanity renders him most supremely ridiculous. 
This is more inferior than that though it is more superior 
than many others. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

The great power and force of custom forms another 
argument against bad company. And Joshua he shall go 
over before thee as the Lord hath said. If thou be the 
king of the Jews save thyself. The people therefore that 
was with him when he raised Lazarus out of his grave, 
bare record. Public spirit is a more universal principle 
than a sense of honour. I see you have a new pair of 
gloves. Five years' interest were demanded. In all his 
works are sprightliness and vigour. The returns of kind- 
ness are sweet, and there are neither honour nor virtue 
in resisting them. 

How rarely reason guides the stubborn choice ; 

Ruls the bold hand, or prompt the suppliant voice. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 73. 

§ 73. Rule XXIV. 1. Adverbs modify verbs., 
adjectives, and other adverbs. § 33. 

2. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives : 
Thus. " Use a little wine for thine often infirmities/* 
should be, "for thy frequent infirmities." 

Rule I. From should not be used before hence, thence, and whence, 
because it is implied. 

Note. Custom, however, has so far sanctioned the violation of this rule, that a 
strict adherence to it would now appear stiff and affected. 

Rule II. After verbs of motion, hither, thither, and whither, are now 
used only on solemn occasions. In other cases, the adverbs, here, 
there, and where, are employed ; as, Fie came here. We rode there, 

Obs. 1. Where should not be used for in which, nor when, then, and 
vohile as nouns. So, is often used elliptically for an adjective, a noun, 
or a whole sentence ; as, They are rich, we are not so. He is a good 
scholar, and I told you so. 

Obs. 2. Only, solely, chiefly, merely, too, also, and perhaps a few others,, 
are sometimes joined to substantives ; as, Not only the men, but the 
women also were present. 

EXERCISES. 

They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. 
He was befriended by the then reigning Duke. Some of 
my then hearers prevailed upon me to publish these lec- 
tures. 

(Rule I. and IL) From whence come ye ? He departed 
from thence into a desert place. I will send thee far from 
hence to the Gentiles. Where art thou gone ! The city is 
near, let me escape there. Where I am, there ye can- 
not come. From whence we may likewise date the period 
of this event. He walked thither in less than an hour. 
Whither have you been ? 

(Obs. 1.) He drew up a petition where he too frequently 
represented his own merit. He went to London last year* 
since when I have not seen him. The situation where I 
found him. It is not worth his while* 



§ 74. SYNTAX. 117 

§ 74. Rule XXV. Adverbs are for the most 
part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the 
simple form, and frequently between the auxiliary 
and the verb ; as, He is very attentive, behaves 
well, and is much esteemed. 

Obs. 1. This is to be considered only as a genera] rule to which there are many 
exceptions. Indeed no rule for the position of the adverb can be given, which is 
not liable to exceptions. That order is the best which conveys the meaning with 
most precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed before the verb, 
or at some distance after it. Never, often, always, sometimes, generally precede 
the verb. Not, with the present participle, should generally be placed before it. 
Enough follows the adjective, and sometimes both follow the noun ; thus, a 
solid enough reason, or, a reason solid enough. 

The introductive or emphatic there, and the interrogative where, arc placed at 
the beginning of the sentence ; as, There were many varieties ; There they are. 
Where are you 1 — There, in its strict sense, follows the verb; as, The man stands 
there. 

Obs. 2. The improper position of the adverb only, often occasions ambiguity. 
This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sentence or clause, by placing it 
at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predicate, by pla- 
cing it before the predicating term ; and when it refers to a subject, by placing it 
after its name or description , as, " Only acknowledge thine iniquity :" " The 
thoughts of his heart are only evil :" Take nothing for your journey but a staff 
only." These observations will generally be applicable to the words, merely, 
solely, chiefly, first, at least, and perhaps to a few others. 

Obs. 3. Ever and never are sometimes improperly confounded. 

EXERCISES. 
We should not be overcome totally by present events. 
He unaffectedly and forcibly spoke, and was heard atten- 
tively by the whole assembly. It cannot be impertinent 
or ridiculous, therefore, to remonstrate. Not only he 
found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. In 
the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear carefully re- 
quires to be consulted as well as the sense. 

(Obs. 1.) The women contributed all their rings and 
jewels voluntarily to assist the government. Having not 
known, or having not considered the measures proposed, 
he failed of success. He was determined to invite back 
the king, and to call together his friends. 

(Obs. 2.) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. 
By greatness, I do not only mean the bulk of any single 
object, but the largeness of a whole view. Only you 
have I known, of all the nations of the earth. In using 
every exertion in our power for the public good, we only 
discharge our duty. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* § T5> 

§ 75. Rule XXVI. Two negatives in the same 
sentence are improper, unless we mean to ajjirm : 
thus, " I cannot by no means allow it," should be, "I 
cannot by any means allow it." Or, " I can by no 
means allow it." 

The reason of this rale is, that one negative destroys another, or is equivalent 
to an affirmative. 

Obs. Sometimes two negatives are intended to affirm, and in this case, if one of 
them, such as dis-, in-, im-, un-, &c. is prefixed to another word, a pleasing ant! 
delicate variety of expression is produced; as, " Nor was the king unacquainted 
with his designs," i.e. he "was acquainted with them." In such sentences the 
intervention of only, which is-equivalent to a distinct clause, preserves the nega- 
tion ; as, u He was not only illiberal, but he was covetous," But if the negative 
consist of two separate and detached words, the expression is generally harsh and 
inelegant ; as, Nor have I no money which I can spare, i. e. I have money which 
I can spare. 

Note. The English language in this respect agrees with the Latin, but differs 
from the Greek and French, in both of which two negatives with the same sub- 
ject render the negation stronger. 

EXERCISES. 
I cannot drink no more. He cannot do nothing. He 
will never be no taller. Covet neither riches nor honours, 
nor no such perishing things. Do not interrupt me thyself, 
nor let no one disturb me. I am resolved not to comply 
with the proposal, neither at present nor at any other time. 
I have received no information on the subject, neither from 
him nor from his friend. There cannot be nothing more 
insignificant than vanity. Nor is danger apprehended in 
such a government, no more than we commonly apprehend 
danger from thunder or earthquakes. Never no imitator 
grew up to his author. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

James and I am cousins. Thy father's merits sets thee 
forth to view. That it is our duty to be pious admit not 
of any doubt. If he becomes rich he may be less indus- 
trious. It was wrote extempore. Romulus, which founded 
Rome, killed his brother Remus. He involved a friend in 
a troublesome lawsuit who had always supported him. 
Who of you convinceth me of sin. I treat you as a boy 
who love to learn and are ambitious of receiving instruc- 
tion. He was the ablest minister which James ever pos- 
sessed. 



§7& SYNTAX. 119 

§ 76. Rule XXVII. Appropriate prepositions 
must be used before names of places ; thus, 

To— is used after a verb of motion ; as, He went to Spain, but it is omitted be- 
fore home ; as, he went home yesterday. 

At-^-is used after the verb to be ; as, I was at Rochester. 

In — is used before names of countries and large cities ; as, I live in Albany, in 
the State of New- York. 

At — is used before single houses, villages, towns, and foreign cities ; as, He is at 
home, He resided at Gretna green ; at York ; at Rome. 

Obs. 1. One inhabitant speaking of another's residence, says, He lives in State 
Street, or if the word number be used, — at No. State Street. 

Obs. 2. Interjections sometimes have an objective after them, but they never 
govern it ; it is always governed by an active verb or preposition understood ; as, 
Ah me ! i. e. Ah ! what has happened to me. The case after an interjection will 
always have to depend on the supplement to be made. It will generally, how- 
ever, be the objective of the first personal pronoun, and the nominative of the 
second ; as, Ah me ! O thou wretch ! § 80. 2. 

EXERCISES. 

They have just arrived in Buffalo, and are going to Ro- 
chester. They will reside two months at England. I have 
been to London after having resided in France, and I now- 
live at New- York. 1 was in the place appointed long be- 
fore any of the rest. We touched in Liverpool on our way 
for New- York. I have been to home for a few days. He 
spends much of his time in a village in Long Island. He 
had lodgings at George's Square. He boards in No. 12, 
Dean-street. We have been to home since morning. I 
will go home to-morrow. 

(Obs. 2.) Ah! unhappy thee, who are deaf to the calls 
of duty and of honour. Oh ! happy us, surrounded with 
so many blessings. Woe's I, for I am a man of unclean 
lips. 

Promiscuous. He has been expecting of us some time. 
Young persons need not to be initiated in the language of 
controversy. His quitting the army was unexpected. I 
seen him yesterday. If there was no cowardice, there 
would be little insolence. I was rejoiced at the news. I 
shall do my friends no wrong, for I have none to lament 
me. They were descended from a family that came over 
with the Conqueror. They did not behave with that deco- 
rum which is the duty of every gentleman to observe. 



120 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§77. 



§ 77. Rule XXVIII. Certain iDords and phrases 
must he followed with appropriate prepositions ; 
such as ? 



Abhorrence of. 
Accommodate to. 
Accord with. 
Accuse of. 
Acquit of. 
Adapted to. 
Agreeable to. 

Ask or inquire of a person for 
what we wish to see, — after 
what we wish to hear of. 
Averse to or from. 
Believe in, sometimes on. 
Bestow upon. 
Betray to a person, — into any 

thing else. 
Boast of. See Obs. 3. 
Call on a person, — at a house. 
Change for. 
Charge a person with a thing, — 

a thing on an agent. 
Compare with, in respect of 
quality, — to, for the sake of 
illustration. 
Compliance with. 
Concur with, in, on. 
Confide in. 

Conformable, consonant to. 
Conversant with men, — in things ; 
about and among are less 
proper. 
Copy from life, nature, — after a 

parent. 
Dependent upon. 
Derogative from. 
Die of disease — by an instrument 

or violence. 
Differ from. 
Difficulty in. 

Diminish from, — diminution of. 
Disappointed in or of § S6, 5. 
Disapprove of. See Obs. 3. 
Discourage from. 
Discouragement to. 
Dissent from. 
Eager in. 



Engaged in a work — for a time. 

Equal to, loith. 

Exception from. 

Expert in, (before a noun,) — at 9 
(before an active participle.) 

Fall under. 

Familiar to, with: A thing is 
familiar to us ; we are familiar 
with it. 

Free from. 

Glad of, something gained by 
ourselves, — at, something that 
befals another. 

Incorporate into, (when active.) 
with, (when neuter.) 

Independent of or on. 

Indulge loith what is not habit- 
ual, — in what is habitual. 

Insist upon. 

Intrude into an enclosed place ; 

upon what is not enclosed. 

Made of. 

Marry to. 

Martyr for. 

Need of. 

Observation of. 

Prejudice against. 

Prevail (to persuade) with, on, 
tipon, — (to overcome,) over, 
against. 

Profit by. 

Protect (others) from, — (our- 
selves) against. 

Provide loith ox for. 

Reconcile to friendship, — with, 
(to make consistent.) 

Reduce (to subdue) under, — in 
other cases, to ; as, to powder, 
to fractions. 

Regard to. 

Replete xoith. ^ 

Resemblance to. 

Resolve on. 

Rule over. 

Sick of. 



§ 77. SYNTAX. 121 

Rule XXVIII. Continued. 

Sink into, beneath, sense) with, — (in an active 

Swerve from, sense) to. 

Taste for, or of § 86, 6. Value upon or on. 

Tax with, (e. g. a crime,) — for Vest with a thing possessed — in 

the state. the possessor. 

Think of or on. Wait upon, on. 

True fo. Worthy of; sometimes the of is 

Unite (in a neutral or passive understood. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1. The particular preposition which it is proper to use, often de- 
pends as much upon what follows as upon what goes before ; thus 
we say, To fall from a height, — to fall into a pit, — to fall to work, — 
to fall upon an enemy. 

2. Into is used only after verbs of motion, and denotes entrance : 
In is used when motion or rest in a place is signified ; as, They went 
into a carriage, and travelled in it ten miles. 

3. Boast, approve, and disapprove, are often used without of. 
Worthy has sometimes of following it, and sometimes not. 

4. The same preposition that follows the verb or adjective, usually 
follows the noun derived from it, and vice versa ; as, Confide in, — 
confidence in, — confident in. Disposed to tyrannize, — a disposition 
to tyrannize, &c. 

EXERCISES. 

He was very eager of recommending him to his fel- 
low-citizens. He found great difficulty of writing. He 
accused the ministers for having betrayed the Dutch. 
This is certainly not a change to the better. The Eng- 
lish were a very different people then to what they are 
now. The history of Peter is agreeable with the sa- 
cred text. It was intrusted to persons on whom Con- 
gress could confide. I completely dissent with the exa- 
miner. Nothing shall make me swerve out of the path 
of duty. There was no water, and he died for thirst. 
We can safely confide on none but the truly good. 
Many have profited from good advice. The error was 
occasioned by compliance to earnest entreaty. This is a 
principle in unison to our nature. This remark is found- 
ed in truth. His parents think on him and his improve- 
ments with pleasure and hope. 

12 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAS. § 77, 

Exercises on Rule XXVIIL Continued. 

You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving 
persons. The wisest persons need not think it any di- 
minution of their greatness, or derogation to their suffi- 
ciency, to rely upon counsel. Conformable with this 
plan. It is consonant with our nature. He had no re- 
gard after his father's commands. There was a preju- 
dice to his cause. There is no need for it. Reconciling 
himself with the king. They have no resemblance with 
each other. Upon such occasions as fell into their cogni- 
zance. I am engaged with preparing for a journey. We 
profit from experience. He is resolved of going to the 
Persian court. Expert about deceiving. The Romans 
reduced the world to their own power. He provided 
them in every thing. He seems to have a taste of such 
studies. You are conversant with that science. He is 
more conversant in men of science than in politicians. 
These are exceptions to the general rule. He died for 
thirst. He died of the sword. He is glad of calamities. 
She is glad at his company. 

He saw your brother, and inquired from him for his 
friend's health. He was charged on being accessary to 
the murder. This is the first time we have been indulged 
in such a luxury. He indulges himself with the most 
pernicious habits. I hope I do not intrude into you. He 
will suffer no one to intrude upon his house. Is that a 
copy after nature ? If you copy from your father's ex- 
ample, you will do well. He has never been reconciled 
with his lot. How can such conduct be reconciled to the 
principles he professes? It is proper that the people 
should be taxed with the support of government. Can- 
not you prevail over your father to pay us a visit ? The 
enemy prevailed upon us by superior force. Take care 
to protect yourself from the dangers which threaten you. 
The walls protected us against the fire of the enemy. He 
has now become familiar to the rules of grammar. Your 
countenance is familiar with me. All his means were 
vested with trade. The office of judge and advocate 
should not be vested with the same person. 



§ 18* SYNTAX- 123 

§ 78. Rule XXIX. In the use of verbs and 
words that in point of time relate to each other, the 
w*der of time must be observed ; as, "I have known 
him these many years ; " not, " I know him these 
many years." 

Remark. The particular tense necessary to be used must depend 
upon the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to all cases. 
But it may be proper to observe, 

Observation I. An observation which is always true mu3t be ex- 
pressed in the present tense ; as, The stoics believed that " all crimes 
are equal." 

Obs. 2. The perfect, and not the present tense, should be used in 
connexion with words denoting an extent of time continued to the pre- 
sent; thus, "They continue with me now three days," should be 
" have continued" &c. 

Obs. 3> The perfect tense ought never to be used in connexion with 
words which express past time; thus, "I have formerly mentioned 
his attachment to study," should be "I formerly mentioned," &c. 

Obs. 4. The present and past of the auxiliaries, shall, will, may, can, 
should never be associated in the same sentence ; and care must be 
taken that the subsequent verb be expressed in the same tense with 
the antecedent verb ; thus, " I may or can do it now, if I choose ; " 
" I might or could do it now, if I chose; " " I shall or will do it, when 
I can ; " " I may do it, if I can ; " " I once coxdd do it, but I would 
not ; " "I would have done it then, but I could not." " I mention it to 
him, that he may stop if he choose ; " " I mentioned it to him, that he 
might stop if he chose ; " " I have mentioned it to him, that he may 
stop;" "I had mentioned it to him, that he might stop;" "I had 
mentioned it to him, that he might have stopped, had he chosen. 

Note 1. When should is used instead of ought , to express present duty, § 20, 
4, it may be followed by the present ; as, " You should study that you may be- 
come learned." 

Note 2. The verb had is sometimes improperly used for icould; thus, " I had 
rather do it," should be, " I would rather do it." 

Note 3. Would and should are sometimes, in common language, used as if 
they were almost expletives ; thus, " It would seem," for " It seems." 

Obs. 5. The indicative present is frequently used after the words 
when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAH* §78. 

Rule XXIX. Continued. 

future action ; (§ 24, 1, 4,) as, " When he comes, he will be welcome." 
"When placed before the perfect indicative, they denote the completion 
of a future action, or event; as, "He will never be better till he has 
felt the pangs of poverty." 

Obs. 6. A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the present tense 7 
when it expresses what is contemporary in point of time with its gov- 
erning verb, or subsequent to it ; as, " He appeared to be a man of let- 
ters ; " " The Apostles were determined to preach the gospel." 

Obs. 7. But the perfect infinitive must be used to express what is 
antecedent to the time of the governing verb ; as, " Romulus is said to 
have founded Rome," 

EXERCISES. 

1. The doctor said, in his lecture, that fever always pro- 
duced thirst. The philosopher said that heat always ex- 
panded metals. He said that truth was immutable. 

2. I know the family more than twenty years, I am 
now at school six months. My brother was sick four weeks, 
and is no better. He tells lies long enough. 

3. He has lately lost an only son. He has been for- 
merly very disorderly. I have been at London last year, 
and seen the king last summer. I have once or twice told 
the story to our friend. He has done it before. 

4. I should be obliged to him, if he will gratify me in 
that part particular. Ye will not come to me that ye might 
have life. Be wise and good that you might be happy. 
He was told his danger, that he may shun it. 

(Note 1.) We should respect those persons because 
they continued long attached to us. He should study dili- 
gently that he might become learned. 2. I had rather go 
now than afterwards. He had better do it soon. 

5. We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. As 
soon as he shall return, we will recommence our studies. 
A prisoner is not accounted guilty, till he be convicted. 

6. From the little conversation I had with him, he ap- 
peared to have been a man of learning. Our friends in- 
tended to have met us. He was afraid he would have died. 

7. Kirstall Abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an ex- 
tensive building. Lycurgus, the Spartan lawgiver, is said 
to be born in the 926th year before Christ. 



$ 79. SYNTAX. 125 

§ 79. Rule XXX. When a member of a sen- 
tence refers to two different clauses, it should be 
equally applicable to both ; as ? He has not been f 
and cannot be, censured for such conduct. 

This rule is often violated in sentences in which there are two 
comparisons of a different nature and government. Thus, "He was 
more beloved, but not so much admired as Cinthio." Here " as Cin- 
thio, is applicable to the clause "so much admired?' but cannot be 
connected with "more beloved. 17 In such sentences, the proper way is 
to complete the construction of the first member, and leave that of the 
second understood ; as, "He was more beloved than Cinthio ; but not 
so much admired" (as Cinthio.) 

A proper choice of words, and a perspicuous arrangement,, should 
be carefully attended to. 

EXERCISES. 

This dedication may serve for almost any book that 
has, or ever shall be published. Will it be urged that 
these books are as old, or even older than tradition. He 
is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as 
his companion. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more 
valuable, than knowledge. No person was ever so per- 
plexed, or sustained the mortifications as he has done to- 
day. Neither has he, nor any other persons suspected 
so much dissimulation. The intentions of some of these 
philosophers, nay, of many, might and probably were 
good. The reward is due, and it has already, or will 
hereafter be given to him. This book is preferable and 
cheaper than the other. He either has, or will obtain the 
prize. He acted both suitably and consistently with his 
profession. The first proposal was essentially different 
and inferior to the second. He contrives better, but does 
not execute so well as his brother. There are principles 
in man which ever have, and ever will incline him to of- 
fend. The greatest masters of critical learning, differ 
and contend against one another. The winter has not, 
and probably will not be so severe as was expected. He 
is more friendly in his disposition, but not so distinguished 
for talents, as his brother. 

12* 



IS6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § Bft, 

§ 80. Rule XXXI. 1. A substantive with a par- 
ticiple, forming an independent member of a sen- 
tence, is put in the nominative case absolute ; as, 
" He (not him) destroyed, all this will soon follow." 

2. The person or thing addressed, without a verb, 
is put in the nominative independent ; as, Plato. 
thou reasonest well, I am, JSir, your humble servant. 

Obs. 1. In the case absolute, as the nominative and objective cases 
of nouns have the same form, there is liability to error only in the use 
of pronouns, 

2. The substantive is sometimes understood ; as, Generally speak- 
ing, i. o. We, His conduct, viewing it in the most favourable light, 
reflects discredit on his character, i. e. we, men, or a person, viewing 
it, &c. 

3. The infinitive mood is used absolutely to express the same idea ; 
as, To speak generally • To view it in its most favourable light. See 
§ 67, Rem. 2. 

EXERCISES. 

He made as wise proverbs as any body since, him on* 
ly excepted. Them descending the ladder, fell. Whom 
being dead, we shall come. But them being absent, we 
cannot come to a determination. 

Whose grey top 



Shall tremble, him descending. 

The bleating sheep with my complaints agree, 
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by the©* 

Her quick relapsing to her former state, 
With boding fears approach the sewing train. 

There all thy gifts and graces we display* 
Thee, only thee, directing all our way. 

So great iEneas rushes to the fight, 

Sprung from a god, and more than mortal bold, 

Him fresh in youth, and me in arms grown old. 



§81 SYNTAX. 127 

§ 81. Rule. XXXII. The Article A is used be- 
fore nouns in the singular number only. The is 
used before nouns in both numbers. A is indefinite, 
The is definite. (§4.) 

It is impossible to give a precise rule for the use of the article in every 
case. The best general rule is to observe what the sense requires. 
The following usages may be noticed. 

1. The article is omitted before a noun that stands for a whole spe- 
cies ; as, Man is mortal ; and before the names of minerals, metals, 
arts, &c. Some nouns denoting the species, have the article always 
prefixed ; as. The dog is a more grateful animal than the cat. The 
lion is a noble animal. 

2. The last of two nouns after a comparative, should have no article 
when they both refer to one person or thing ; as, He is a better reader 
than writer. 

3. When two or more adjectives, or epithets, belong to the same 
subject, the article should be placed before the first, and omitted before 
the rest ; as, A red and white rose, i. e. a rose, some parts of which 
are red, and others white. But when the adjectives, or epithets be- 
long to different subjects, the article should be prefixed to each ; as, a 
red and a white rose, i. e. a red rose and a white rose. " Johnson the 
bookseller and stationer," indicates that the bookseller and the sta- 
tioner are epithets belonging to the same person; "the bookseller 
and the stationer " would indicate that they belong to different per- 
sons. 

Jfote. The same remark may be made respecting the demonstrative pronouns ; 
as, "That great and good man," means only one man. That great and that 
good man, means two : the one great, and the other good. 

4. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made, by the use or 
omission of the article a before the words few, little. If I say, "He 
behaved with a little reverence," the expression is positive, and implies 
a degree of praise. But if I say, " He behaved with little reverence," 
the expression is negative, and implies a degree of blame. 

5. The indefinite article has sometimes the meaning of every or each, 
thus, twelve shillings a dozen, two hundred pounds a year, i. e. every 
dozen, every year. 

6. The antecedent to a restrictive clause is preceded by the de- 
finite article; as, All the pupils that are present, have been re- 
warded. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 81 

Rule XXXII. Continued. 
EXERCISES 

ON THE IMPROPER USE AND OMISSION OF THE ARTICLES* 

1. Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
The gold is corrupting. A man is the noblest work of the 
creation. Wisest and best men are sometimes betrayed 
into errors. We must act our part with a constancy, though 
reward of our constancy be distant. There are some evils 
of life which equally affect prince and people. Purity has 
its seat in the heart, but extends its influence over so much 
of outward conduct as to form the great and material part 
of a character. At worst I could incur but a gentle repri- 
mand. The profligate man is seldom or never found to 
be the good husband, the good father, or the beneficent 
neighbour. 

2. A man may be a better soldier than a logician. 
There is much truth in the old adage that fire is a better 
servant than a master. He is not so good a poet as a his- 
torian. 

3. Thomson the watchmaker and the jeweller from Lon- 
don, was of the party. A red and a white flag was dis- 
played from the tower. A beautiful stream flows between 
the new and old mansion. A hot and cold spring were 
found in the same neighbourhood. The young and old 
man seem to be on good terms. The bill equally concerns 
the manufacturer and consumer. 

4. He has been much censured for paying a little atten- 
tion to his business. So bold a breach of order called for 
little severity in punishing the offender. 

5. A shilling for every dozen is a moderate price. 1 
would not undertake to walk twenty miles each day for three 
months. A guinea every week. 

6. Persons who suffered by this calamity, have been 
much commiserated. Foreign travel, and things which he 
has seen, have enlarged his views. The proprietors are 
responsible for all parcels that are committed to their care. 
All persons who were consulted, were of this opinion. 
Members who do not appear, must bo fined. 



§ 82. SYNTAX. 129 

§ 82. Rule XXXIII. An ellipsis or omissio?i 
of words is admissible, when they can be supplied 
in the mind xoith such certainty and readiness as 
not to obscure the sense. Thus, instead of saying, 
He was a learned man, and he was a wise man, and 
he was a good man ; we say, He was a learned, wise, 
and good man. 

Obs. It may be regarded as a rule proper to be kept steadily in view, 
that the fewer the words by which we can express our ideas, the bet- 
ter, provided the meaning be brought clearly out. 

Rem. The auxiliaries of the compound tenses are often used alone ; 
as, We have done it, but thou hast not ; i. e. thou hast not done it. 

The following phrases are elliptical : " To let out blood." " To go 
a hunting ; " that is, " To go on a hunting excursion." " I dine at 
one o'clock ; " that is, "I dine at one of the clock." 

EXERCISES. 

He sent me the books and the papers which he promised. 
He has a house and a garden in the country. — These coun- 
sels were the dictates of virtue and the dictates of true ho- 
nour. Such conduct is contrary to the laws of God, and 
to the laws of man. His crimes brought him into extreme 
distress and into extreme perplexity. He was blessed 
with an affectionate father and an affectionate mother 
His reputation and his estate are both lost by gaming. He 
is temperate* he is disinterested, he is benevolent. This 
is the man whom we met and whom we invited to our 
house. Genuine virtue supposes our benevolence and 
our usefulness to be strengthened and to be confirmed by 
principle. Perseverance in laudable pursuits will reward 
our toils and will produce effect beyond our expectation. 
We often commend imprudently as well as censure impru- 
dently. Changes are often taking place in men and in 
manners, in opinions and in customs* in private fortunes 
and in public conduct. He insulted every man and every 
woman in the company. 

(Rem.) He regards his word, but thou dost not regard 
\t. They must be punished, and they shall be punished. 
We succeeded, but they did not succeed. 

1 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 83. 

§83. Rule XXXIV. An ellipsis is not allow- 
able when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its 
force, or be attended with an impropriety ; for ex- 
ample, " We speak that we do know, and testify 
that we have seen," should be, "We speak that 
which we do know, and testify that which we have 



Obs. 1. In genera], no word should be omitted that is necessary to the full and 
correct construction, or even harmony of a sentence. Articles, pronouns, and pre- 
positions, should always be repeated when the words with which they stand con 
nected are. used emphatically. Even nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs, must 
often, under such circumstances, be repeated ; as, Not only the year, but the day 
and the hour were appointed. 

2. It is generally improper (except in poetry,) to omit the antecedent to a rela- 
tive ; and always to omit a relative when of the nominative ease. 

3. The article should be repeated, when a different form of it is required ; as, 
A horse and an ass. 

EXERCISES. 

I gladly shunned who gladly fled from me. His honour, 
interest, religion, were all embarked in this undertaking. 
The more I see of his conduct I like him better. It is not 
only the duty but interest of young persons to be studious 
and diligent. Without firmness, nothing that is great can 
be undertaken ; that is difficult or hazardous, accomplished. 
That species of commerce will produce great gain or loss. 
Many days and even weeks pass away unimproved. The 
people of this country possess a healthy climate and soil. 
I have purchased a house and orchard. His conduct is 
not scandalous, and that is the best can be said of it. 
The captain had several men died in his ship of scurvy. 
They enjoy also a free constitution and laws. That is a 
property most men have, or at least may attain. *A noble 
spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune ; his greatness of 
soul is not to be cast down. Charles was a man of learn- 
ing, knowledge, and benevolence ; and what is more, a 
true christian. 



*"A noble spirit," &c, should be, "A man of a noble spirit." It would be 
improper to speak of the soul of a spirit. 



§ 84. SYNTAX. 131 

§ 84. SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

In syntactical parsing, the pupil should be directed to state the 
parts of speech, and the various accidents belonging to them, as di- 
rected in § 39 ; and in addition to this, to point out the relation in 
which each word stands to others with which it is connected in the 
sentence according to the Rules of Syntax. After stating these, 
(which should always be done in the same order, and in as few 
words as possible,) he should be requested to assign a reason for 
every thing contained in his statement, in some such manner as the 
following. 

1. Method of Syntactical Parsing, exemplified in 
each of the Parts of Speech. 

1. is an Article, definite, (indefinite,) here put before the 



noun • 



Quest. What is the use of this article ? why definite ? ( — indefi- 
nite?) 

Ans. It is put before to shew the extent of its meaning. 

Because it points out a particular—, (Because it 
does not, &c.) 

2. is a Noun, masc* (fern, neut.) sing, (pi.) the nom. 

(poss. obj.) — is the nom. to the verb (is governed by 

according to Rule ) 

Quest How do you know it is a noun ? — masc. ? — sing. ? — the 

nom? 
Ans. Because it is the name of a thing, — is of the male sex, — de- 
notes but one — is the subject of the verb , or, is the 

person (or thing) spoken of. 

3. is an Adjective^ positive degree, is compared regularly, 

(irregularly, — is not compared,) qualifies 

* In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verbs, it is quite unnecessary to repeat the 
words, "gender," "number," "mood," "tense;" thus, masculine gender, sin- 
gular number, &c. ; the meaning being sufficiently indicated by the terms, mascu- 
line, feminine, neuter— singular, plural— indicative, potential, &c. — present, past, 
future, &c. ; and it has the advantage of saving much time. For the same reason, 
it may be proper to omit the terms, "proper" and " common," before nouns, 
and the conjugation of all regular verbs. When the verb is passive, parse thus: 
" A verb active, in the passive voice, regular, irregular," &c. See § 19, Obs, 7 : 
and also in the following " Specimen," No. 2, questions may be put, and an- 
swers rendered as here. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 84. 

Quest. How do you know it is an adjective ? (why not compar- 
ed?) 

Jins. Because it expresses a quality of-— Because it denotes, &c, 
see § 13, Obs. 4. 
4. — — — is a Personal Pronoun, 1st, person, (2d or 3d) masc. 

(fern.) sing, thenom. (poss. obj.) is the nom. to (is 

gov'd by R. — — ) 

Quest. How do you know it is a pronoun? — is the first pers.? 
(2d ?— 3d ?)— masc. ?— sing. ?— the nom. ? Decline it. 

Ans. Because it stands instead of a noun, viz. , it denotes the 

person speaking, (spoken to, — spoken of,) — is of the male 
sex, — denotes one, — is the subject of the verb -*-* — 

is a Relative Pronoun, 1st. pers. (2d. 3d.) masc. — sing. — the 

nom. ( — the objective governed by-^ R. ) — 

agrees with its antecedent •* 1 R. xi. " The relative 

agrees, &c." 

Quest. How do you know it is a relative? — of the 1st pers.? (2d? 
3d ?)-masc. ? — sing. ? — the nom. ? 

Ans. Because it relates to its antecedent, Because its 

antecedent is the 1st pers.-(2d. — 3d.) — is masc. — is 

sing. Because it is the subject of the verb — 

5. is a Verb active, (passive neut.) (irreg. conjugated thus) in the 

1st pers. (2d. — 3d.) — sing, (pi.) -—tense mood, agrees 

with its nom. — > — ; Rule I. " A verb must agree, &c." 

Quest. How do you know it is a verb ? active? (passive neut.?) 
regular? (irreg.?) of the -r- person ? 

Ans. Because it affirms of its nom. : Because it expresses an 

act done to an object, or, it admits an objective after it, 
(neut. because it does not express an act done to an ob- 
ject ; or, it does not admit an objective after it) "reg." 
because its imperfect tense and perfect participle end in ed 
(irreg. because they do not end in ed) " 1st pers. sing, or 

pi." (2d or 3d. pers. sing, or pi.) because its nom. is 

in the 1st pers., &c, according to Rule I. " A verb must 
agree, &c." 
6, is an Adverb, and modifies — — 7 



§ 84. SYNTAX. 133 

Quest. How do you know it is an adverb ? Is it compared ? com- 
pare it. 
Ans. Because it modifies the meaning of the verb adjec- 
tive -, &c. 

7. s*. is a Preposition. Quest. How do you know ? Ans. Be- 
cause it expresses the relation in which the noun stands 

to the noun ; (or the verb ). 

8. is an Interjection, Because it expresses a sudden emotion 

of 

9. is a Conjunction* Because it connects the words — 

and ; or the sentences — and • 

2. SPECIMEN OF SYNTACTICAL PARSING. 

Psalm cxi. 10. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning 
of wisdom, and a good understanding have all they that do 
his Commandments : His praise endureth forever." 

The is the definite article, put before fear. 

Fear is a noun, neuter, singular, and is the nominative to (or subject 
of) is. 

Of is a preposition, it expresses the relation between fear and Lord. 

Lord is a noun, masculine, singular, the objective governed by of 
Rule in. " Prepositions govern," &a 

Is is a verb, neuter, irregular — am, was, been; it is in the indicative, 
present, third person singular, and agrees with its nomina- 
tive/car. Rule i. " A verb agrees," &c. 

Beginning is a noun, neuter, singular, in the nominative j it is put 
after is, in the same case with fear. Rule xm. 

And is a conjunction, (copulative ;) it connects the two simple sen - 
tences, " The fear of the Lord," &e. and " a good under- 
standing," &c. (The connexion here being between the 
simple sentences, and not between any verbs, or nouns, or 
pronouns, in them, the Rule § 69 does not apply.) 

A is the indefinite article, put before understanding. 

Good is an adjective, positive degree, qualifies understanding 9 and is 
compared irregularly, thus, Good, better, best. 

Understanding is a noun, neuter, singular, in the objective, governed 
by have. Rule n. " An active verb,'' &c. 
13 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 85. 

Have is a verb active, irregular— have, had, had ; in the indicative pre- 
sent, third person plural, agreeing with ihey. Rule i. 

"A verb must agree," &c. 
Jill is an adjective pronoun, (indefinite ;) qualifies they. 
They is a substantive pronoun, third person, masculine, plural, in the 

nominative ; is the nominative to have, and stands for men. 

Rule x. It is thus declined, &c. 
That is a relative pronoun, here used for who, according to Rule xi. 

Rem. 3. It is related to they as its antecedent. 
Do is a verb active, irregular— do, did, done ; it is in the indicative, 

present, third person, plural, and agrees with that. Rule i. 

" A verb must agree," &c. 
His is an adjective pronoun (possessive,) agrees with commandments. 
Commandments is a noun, neuter, plural, in the objective, governed by 

do. Rule ii. " An active verb,'' &c. 
Praise is a noun, neuter, singular, the nominative ; is the nominative 

to have. 
Endureth is a verb neuter, regular, in the indicative, present, third 

person singular, and agrees with praise. Rule i. " A verb 

agrees," &c. 
Forever is an adverb, and modifies endureth. Rule xxiv. 

§ 85. PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Note. — The following exercises, after being corrected, or in the 
time of correcting, may be used as exercises in Syntactical Parsing. 

1. John writes pretty. I shall never do so no more. 
The train of our ideas are often interrupted. Was you pre- 
sent at last meeting 1 He need not be in so much haste. 
He dare not act otherwise than he does. Him whom they 
seek is in the house. George or I is the person. They 
or he is much to be blamed. The troop consist of fifty 
men. Those set of books was a valuable present. That 
pillar is sixty foot high. His conduct evinced the most 
extreme vanity. These trees are remarkable tall. He 
acted bolder than was expected. This is he who I gave 
the book to. Eliza always appears amiably. Who do you 
lodge with now ? He was born at London, but he died in 
Bath. If he be sincere I am satisfied. Her father and 



PHOMTS.] SYNTAX. 135 

her were at church. The master requested him and I to 
read more distinctly. It is no more but his due. Flat- 
terers flatter as long, and no longer than they have expec- 
tations of gain. John told the same story as you told. 
This is the largest tree which I have ever seen. 

2. Let he and I read the next chapter. She is free of 
pain. Those sort # of dealings are unjust. David the son of 
Jesse was the youngest of his brothers. You was very 
kind to him, he said. Well, says I, what does thou think 
of him now ? James is one of those boys that was kept 
in at school, for bad behaviour. Thou, James, did deny 
the deed. Neither good nor evil come of themselves. 
We need not to be afraid. He expected to have gained 
more by the bargain. You should drink plenty of goat 
milk. It was him who spoke first. Do you like ass 
milk ? Is it me that you mean ? Who did you buy your 
grammar from ? If one takes a wrong method at first 
setting out, it will lead them astray. Neither man nor 
woman were present. I am more taller than you. She 
is the same lady who sang so sweetly. After the most 
straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee. Is not 
thy wickedness great ? and thine iniquities infinite ? — 
There was more sophists than one. If a person have 
lived twenty or thirty years, he should have some expe- 
rience. If this were his meaning, the prediction has fail- 
ed. Fidelity and truth is the foundation of all justice. 
His associates in wickedness will not fail to mark the al- 
teration of his conduct. Thy rod and thy staff they com- 
fort me. 

3. And when they had lift up their eyes, they saw no 
man, save Jesus only. Strive not with a man without 
cause, if he have done thee no harm. I wrote to, and 
cautioned the captain against it. Now both the chief 
priests and Pharisees had given a commandment, that if 
any man knew where he were, he should show it, that 
they might take him. The girl, her book is torn in pieces. 
It is not me who he is in love with. He which com- 
mands himself, commands the whole world. Nothing is 
more lovelier than virtue. 

4. The peoples happiness is the statesmans honor. — 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS. 

t 

Changed to a worser shape thou canst not be. I have 
drunk no spirituous liquors this six years. He is taller than 
me, but I am stronger than him. Solid peace and con- 
tentment consists neither in lieauty or riches, but in the 
favor of God, After who is the King of Israel come 
out ? The reciprocations of love and friendship between 
he and I, have been many and sincere. Abuse of mer- 
cies ripen us for judgment. Peter and John is not at 
school to-day. Three of them was taken into custody. 
To study diligently, and behave genteelly, is commenda- 
ble. The enemies who we have most to fear are those 
of our own hearts. Regulus was reckoned the most con- 
summate warrior which Rome could then produce. Sup- 
pose life never so long, fresh accessions of knowledge may 
still be made. 

5. Surely thou who reads so much in the Bible, can tell 
me what became of Elijah. Neither the master nor the 
scholars is reading. Trust not him, whom, you know, 
is dishonest. I love no interests bat that of truth and 
virtue. Every imagination of the thoughts of the heart 
are evil continually. No one can be blamed for taking 
due care of their health. They crucified him, and two 
others with him, on either side one, and Jesus in the 
midst. None can be blamed for taking care of his health. 

6. I have read Popes Homer, and Drydens Virgil. He 
that is diligent you should commend. There was an 
earthquake which made the earth to tremble. And God 
said to Solomon, Wisdom and knowledge is granted unto 
thee, &c. I cannot commend him for justifying hisself 
when he knows that his conduct was so very improper. 
He was very much made on at school. Though he were 
a son, yet learned he obedience by the things which he 
suffered. If he is alone tell him the news ; but if there 
is any body with him, do not tell him. They ride faster 
than us. Though the measure be mysterious, it is wor- 
thy of attention. If he does but approve my endeavors, 
it will be an ample reward. Was it him who came last ? 
Yes, it was him. 

For ever in this humble cell, 
Let thee and I my fair one dwell. 



PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 137 

7. Every man should act suitable to his character and 
station in life. His arguments were exceeding clear. I 
only spoke three words on that subject. The ant and the 
bee sets a good example before dronish boys. Neither in 
this world, neither in the world to come. Evil communi- 
cations corrupts good manners. Hannibal was one of the 
greatest generals whom the world ever saw. The middle 
station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated 
for gaining of wisdom. 

8. These are the rules of grammar, by the observing 
which you may avoid mistakes. The king conferred upon 
him the title of a duke. My exercises are not well wrote, 
I do not hold my pen well. Grammar teaches us to speak 
proper. She accused her companion for having betrayed 
her. I will not dissent with her. Nothing shall make me 
swerve out of the path of duty and honor. Who shall I 
give it to 1 Who are you looking for ? It is a diminution 
to, or a derogation of their judgment. It fell into their no- 
tice or cognizance. She values herself for her fortune. 
That is a book which I am much pleased with. I have 
been to see the coronation, and a fine sight it was. That 
picture of the emperor's is a very exact resemblance of 
him. Every thing that we here enjoy, change, decay, and 
come to an end. It is not him they blame so much. 

9. No people has more faults than they that pretend to 
have none. The laws of Draco is said to have been wrote 
with blood. It is so clear, or so obvious, as I need not 
explain it. She taught him and I to read. The more 
greater a bad man's accomplishments are, the more dan- 
gerous he is to society, and the more less fit for a compa- 
nion. Each has their own faults, and every one should 
endeavor to correct their own. Let your promises be few, 
and such that you can perform. I 

10. His being at an enmity with Caesar and Antony were 
the cause of perpetual discord. Their being forced to their 
books in an age at enmity with all restraint, have been the 
reason why many have hated books all their lives. There 
was a coffee-house at that end of the town, in which seve- 
ral gentlemen used to meet of an evening. Do not despise 
the state of the poor, lest it becomes your own condition* 

13* 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS. 

It was his duty to have interposed his authority in an affair 
of so much importance. He spent his whole life in the doing 
good. Every gentleman who frequented the house, and 
conversed with the erectors of this occasional club, were 
invited to pass an evening when they thought fit. The 
winter has not been so severe as we expected it to have 
been. The rest (of the stars) in circuit walls this universe. 
Sir, if thou have borne him hence, tell me where thou hast 
laid him. 

11. A lampoon, or a satire, does not carry in them rob- 
bery or murder. She and you were not mistaken in her 
conjectures. My sister and I, as well as my brother, are 
employed in their respective occupations. He repents 
him of that indiscreet action. It was me, and not him, 
that wrote it. Art thou him ? I shall take care that no 
one shall suffer no injury. I am a man who approves of 
wholesome discipline, and who recommend it to others ; 
but I am not a person who promotes severity, or who ob- 
ject to mild and generous treatment. This Jackanapes 
has hit me in a right place enough. Prosperity, as truly 
asserted by Seneca, it very much obstructs the knowledge 
of ourselves. To do to others as we would that they 
should do to us, it is our duty. This grammar was pur- 
chased at Ogle's the bookseller's. The council was not 
unanimous. 

12. Who spilt the ink upon the table ? Him. Who lost 
this book 1 Me. Whose pen is this ? Johns. There is 
in fact no impersonal verbs in any language. And he 
spitted on the ground and anointed his eyes. Had I never 
seen ye, I had never known ye. The ship Mary and Ann 
were restored to their owners. If we consult the improve- 
ment of mind, or the health of body, it is well known exer- 
cise is the great instrument for promoting both. A man 
may see a metaphor or an allegory in a picture, as well as 
read them in a description. 

13. I had no sooner placed her at my right hand, by the 
fire, but she opened to me the reason of her visit. A pru- 
dent wife, she shall be blessed. The house you speak of, 
it cost me five hundred pounds. Did I not tell thee, O 
thee infamous wretch ! that thou wouldst bring me to ruin ? 



PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 139 

Not only the counsel's and attorney's, but the judge's opi- 
nion also, favored his cause. It was the men's, women's, 
and children's lot, to suffer great calamities. That is the 
eldest son of the King of England's. Lord Feversham's 
the general's tent. This palace had been the Grand Sul- 
tan's Mahomet's. They did not every man cast away the 
abomination of their eyes. 

1 4. * I am purposed. He is arrived. They were de- 
serted from their regiment. Whose works are these? 
They are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. The mighty 
rivals are now at length agreed. The time of William 
making the experiment, at length arrived. If we alter the 
situation of any of the words, we shall presently be sensi- 
ble of the melody suffering. This picture of the king's 
does not much resemble him. These pictures of the king 
were sent to him from Italy. He who committed the of- 
fence, thou shouldst correct, not I, who am innocent. 

15. But, Thomas, one of the twelve, called Didymus, 
was not with them when Jesus came. I offer observa- 
tions, that a long and chequered pilgrimage have enabled 
me to make on man. After I visited Europe, I returned 
to America. Clelia is a vain woman, whom, if we do not 
flatter, she will be disgusted. In his conduct was treach- 
ery, and in his words faithless professions. The orators 
did not forget to enlarge themselves on so popular a sub- 
ject. He acted conformable with his instructions, and can- 
not be censured justly. 

16. No person could speak stronger on this subject, nor 
behave nobler, than our young advocate, for the cause of 
toleration. They were studious to ingratiate with those 
who it was dishonorable to favor. The house framed a 
remonstrance, where they spoke with great freedom of the 
king's prerogative. Neither flatter or contemn the rich or 
the great. Many would exchange gladly their honors, 
beauty, and riches, for that more quiet and humbler station, 
which thou art now dissatisfied with. High hopes, and 



* Rule. — It is improper to use a neuter verb in the passive form. Thus, I am 

purposed— He is arrived ; should be, I have purposed-— He has arrived From 

this rule there are a number of exceptions ; for it is allowable to say, He is come. 
8he is gone, &c. $ 49, II, 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, [PROMIS* 

florid views, is a great enemy to tranquillity. Many per- 
sons will not believe but what they are free from prejudices. 
I will lay me down in peace, and take my rest. This word 
I have only found in Spencer. The king being apprized 
of the conspiracy, he fled from Jerusalem. 

17* A too great variety of studies dissipate and weaken 
the mind. James was resolved to not indulge himself in 
such a cruel amusement. They admired the country- 
man's, as they called him, candor and uprightness. The 
pleasure or pain of one passion, differ from those of another. 
The court of Spain, who gave the order, were not aware of 
the consequences. There was much spoke and wrote on 
each side of the question ; but I have chose to suspend my 
decision. 

18. Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion 
sinks them beneath the brutes ; that binds them down to a 
poor pitiable speck of perishable earth ; this opens for them 
a prospect to the skies. Temperance and exercise, how- 
soever little they may be regarded, they are the best means 
of preserving health. To despise others on account of 
their poverty, or to value ourselves for our wealth, are dis- 
positions highly culpable. This task was the easier per* 
formed, from the cheerfulness with which he engaged 
in it. These counsels were the dictates of virtue, and the 
dictates of true honor. As his misfortunes were the fruit 
of his own obstinacy, a few persons pitied him. And they 
were judged every man according to their works. Riches 
is the bane of human happiness. I wrote to my brother 
before I received his letter. 

19. When Garrick appeared, Peter was for some time 
in doubt whether it could be him or not. Are you living 
contented in spiritual darkness ? The company was very 
numerous. Shall the throne of iniquity have fellowship 
with thee, which frameth mischief by a law ? Where 
is the security that evil habits will be ever broken ? They 
each bring material to the place. Nor let no comforter 
delight my ear. She was six years older than him* 
They were obliged to contribute more than us. The Ba- 
rons had little more to rely on, besides the power of their 
families. The sewers (shores) must be kept so clear, 



PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 141 

as the water may ran away. Such among us who fol- 
low that profession. No body is so sanguine to hope for 
it. She behaved unkinder than I expected. Agreeable 
to your request I send this letter. She is exceeding fair. 
Thomas is not as docile as his sister. There was no 
other book but this. He died by a fever. Among whom 
was Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James. 
My sister and I waited till they were called. The army 
were drawn up in haste. The public is respectfully in- 
formed that, &c. The friends and amusements which 
he preferred corrupted his morals. Each must answer 
for themselves. Henry, though at first he showed an un- 
willingness, yet afterwards he granted his request. 

20. Him and her live very happily together. She in- 
vited Jane and I to see her new dress. She uttered such 
cries that pierced the heart of every one who heard them. 
Maria is not as clever as her sister Ann. Though he 
promises ever so solemnly, I will not believe him. The 
full moon was no sooner up, in all its brightness, but he 
opened to them the gate of paradise. It rendered the 
progress very slow of the new invention. This book is 
Thomas', that is James'. Socrates's wisdom has been 
the subject of many a conversation. Fare thee well, 
James. Who, who has the judgment of a man, would 
have drawn such an inference ? George was the most 
diligent scholar whom I ever knew. I have observed 
some children to use deceit. He durst not to displease 
his master. The hopeless delinquents might, each in their 
turn, adopt the expostulatory language of Job. Several 
of our English words, some centuries ago, had different 
meanings to those they have now. And I was afraid, 
and went and hid thy talent in the earth ; lo, there thou 
hast that is thine. With this booty he made off to a dis- 
tant part of the country, where he had reason to believe 
that neither he nor his master were known. Thine is 
the kingdom, the power, and the glory . I have been at 
London. 

21. Which of the two masters, says Seneca, shall we 
most esteem ? — he who strives to correct his scholars by 
prudent advice and motives of honor, or another who will 
lash them severely for not repeating their lessons as they 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. [PROMIS. 

ought ? The blessing of the Lord it maketh rich, and 
he addeth no sorrow with it. For if there be first a wil- 
ling mind, it is accepted according to that a man hath, 
and not according to that he hath not. If a brother or 
a sister be naked and destitute of daily food, and one of 
you say unto them, Depart in peace, be ye warmed and 
filled ; notwithstanding if ye give them not those things 
which are needful to the body ; what doth it profit ? 

22. But she always behaved with great severity to 
her maids; and if any of them were negligent of their 
duty, or made a slip in their conduct, nothing would serve 
her but burying the poor girls alive. He had no master 
to instruct him ; he had read nothing but the writings of 
Moses and the prophets, and had received no lessons from 
the Socrates's,* the Plato's, and the Confucius's of the 
age. They that honor me, I will honor. For the poor 
always ye have with you. 

23. The first Christians of the Gentile world made a 
simple and entire transition from a state as bad, if not 
worse, than that of entire ignorance, to the Christianity 
of the New Testament. 

And he said unto Gideon, every one that lappeth of 
the water with his tongue, as a dog lappeth, him shalt 
thou set by himself. 

The duke had not behaved with that loyalty as was 
expected. 

Milton seems to have been well acquainted with his 
own genius, and to know what it was that nature had 
bestowed upon him more bountifully than upon others. 

24. And on the morrow, because he would have known 
the certainty wherefore he was accused f by the Jews, 
he loosed him from his bonds. 

Here rages force, here tremble flight and fear, 
Here stormed contention, and here fury frowned. 
The Cretan javelin reached him from afar, 
And pierced his shoulder as he mounts his car. 

Nor is it then a welcome guest, affording only an uneasy 

* The Possessive case must not be used for the plural number. In this quo- 
tation from Baron Haller's Letters to his Daughter, the proper names should have 
been pluralized like common nouns ; thus, From the Socrateses, the Platoes, and 
the Confuciuses of the age. 

t Accuse requires of before the mme, and by before the person accusing. 



PROMIS.] SYNTAX. 143 

sensation, and brings always with it a mixture of concern 
and compassion. 

He only* promised me a loan of the book for two days. 
I was once thinking to have written a poem. 

25. A very slow child will often be found to get lessons 
by heart as soon as, nay sometimes sooner, than one who 
is ten times as intelligent. 

It is then from a cultivation of the perceptive faculties, 
that we only can attain those powers of conception which 
are essential to taste. 

No man is fit for free conversation for the inquiry after 
truth, if he be exceedingly reserved ; if he be haughty 
and proud of his knowledge ; if he be positive and dog- 
matical in his opinions ; if he be one who always affects 
to outshine all the company ; if he be fretful and peevish ; 
if he affect wit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or quibbles. 

26. Conversation is the business, and let every one that 
please add their opinion freely. 

The mean suspicious wretch whose bolted door 
Ne'er moved in pity to the wandering poor ; 
With him I left the cup to teach his mind, 
That heaven can bless if mortals will be kind. 

There are many more shining qualities in the mind of man, 
but there is none so useful as discretion. 

Mr. Lock having been introduced by Lord Shaftsbury 
to the Duke of Buckingham and Lord Halfax, these three 
noblemen, instead of conversing with the philosopher on 
literary subjects, in a very short time sat down to cards. 

BAD ARRANGEMENT. 

27. It is your light fantastic fools, who have neither 
heads nor hearts, in both sexes, who, by dressing their 
bodies out of all shape, render themselves ridiculous and 
contemptible. 

And how can brethren hope to partake of their parent's 
blessing that curse each other. 

The superiority of others over us, though in trivial con- 
cerns, never fails to mortify our vanity, and give us vex- 
ation, as Nicol admirably observes. 

* This sentence expresses one meaning as it stands. It may be made to express 
other four by placing only after ww, or loan^ or book, or days. 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* [PR0MIS. 

Likewise also the chief priests, mocking, said among 
themselves, with the scribes, He saved others ; himself he 
cannot save. 

Noah, for his godliness, and his family, were the only 
persons preserved from the flood. 

It is an unanswerable argument of a very refined age, 
the wonderful civilities that have passed between the nation 
of authors, and that of readers. 

And they said among themselves, who shall roll us away 
the stone from the door of the sepulchre. And when they 
had looked, they saw that the stone was rolled away : for 
it was very great. 

A great stone that I happened to find, after a long search, 
by the sea-shore, served me for an anchor. 

It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the 
point. 

, BAD ARRANGEMENT.* 

29. The senate of Rome ordered that no part of it 
should be rebuilt ; it was demolished to the ground, so 
that travellers are unable to say where Carthage stood at 
this day. 

Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years after 
the second Punic war, and two after it had been begun. 

Upon the death of Claudius, the young Emperor Ne- 
ro pronounced his funeral oration, and he was canonized 
among the gods, who scarcely deserved the name of a 
man. 

Galerius abated much of his severities against the Chris- 
tians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts which he 
had formerly published, tending to their persecution, a little 
before his death. 

The first care of Aurelius was to marry his daughter 
Lucilla once more to Claudius Pompeianus, a man of mo- 
derate fortune, &c. 

But at length, having made his guards accomplices in 
their design, they set upon Maximin while he slept at 
noon in his tent, and slew both him and his son, whom 



* The exercises under this head are all extracted from the octavo edition of 
Goldsmith's Roman History, from which many more might be got 



§ 86. SYNTAX. 145 

he had made his partner in the empire, without any op- 
position. 

Aurelian defeated the Marcomanni, a fierce and terri- 
ble nation of Germany, that had invaded Italy, in three 
several engagements. 

AMBIGUITY. 

29. You suppose him younger than I, 

This may mean, either that you suppose him yourrger than I am, 
or that you suppose him to be younger than I suppose him to be. 

Parmenio had served, with great fidelity, Philip, the 
father of Alexander, as well as himself, for whom he first 
opened the way into Asia. 

Here we are apt to suppose the word himself refers to Parmenio, 
and means that he had not only served Philip, but he had served 
himself at the same time^ This, however, is not the meaning of the 
passage. If we arrange it thus, the meaning will appear. " Parme- 
nio had not only served Philip the father of Alexander with great 
fidelity, but he had served Alexander himself, and was the first that 
opened the way for him into Asia." 

Belisarius was general of all the forces under the em- 
peror Justinian the First, a man of rare valor. 

Who was a man of rare valor? The emperor Justinian we 
should suppose, from the arrangement of the words ; but this is not 
the case, for it was Belisarius. The sentence should have stood 
thus, " Belisarius, a man of rare valor, was general of all the forces 
under the emperor Justinian the First. 7 ' 

Lisias promised to his father never to abandon his 
friends. 

Whether were they his own friends or his father's whom Lisias 
promised never to abandon ? If his own, it should be, Lisias pro- 
mised and said to his father, I will never abandon my friends. If his 
father's, it should be, Lisias promised and said to his father, I will 
never abandon your friends. 

§ 86. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS. 

1. Many writers use a plural noun after the second of 
two numeral adjectives, thus, " The first and second pages 
are torn." According to analogy it should rather be, 
The first and second page. Thus we say, " The new 
and the old world," " Ancient and modern history," &c. 

14. K 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 86. 

2. Another, — One, — Every. 

Another corresponds to one ; but not to some, nor to 
every. Thus, " Handed down from every writer of verses 
to another" should be, " From one writer of verses to 
another." " At some hour or another" should be, " At 
some hour or other." 

One is often used in familiar phrases, (like on in 
French,) for we, or any one of us, indiscriminately ; thus, 
" One is often more influenced by example than by pre- 
cept." The verb and pronoun with which one agrees, 
should be singular ; Thus, "If one take a wrong method 
at first, it will lead them astray ;" should be, " it will 
lead one astray, or him astray. 

3. As follows, — As regards, — As appears, fyc. 

Dr. Campbell and Mr. Murray regard these, and seve- 
ral other expressions of a similar kind, as impersonal 
verbs, and are of opinion that they should always be used 
in the singular. This, however, is contrary to the es- 
tablished usage of our best writers, who frequently use 
them in the plural form ; as, " The circumstances were 
as follow." Other Grammarians, and particularly Dr. 
Crombie, (Etymology p. 389 et seq.) consider as to be 
a relative pronoun, and that the verb following it should 
be singular or plural, according as its antecedent is in the 
singular or plural number, Thus, " His description was as 
follows," i. e. " was this which follows." " His words 
were as follow," i. e. " were those which follow." Nei- 
ther of these explanations seems to be entirely satisfac- 
tory. It is perhaps better to regard such phrases as ellip- 
tical, and in parsing to supply the ellipsis thus, " The 
words were such as those which follow," or, " were the 
same as those which follow." 

As concerns, as regards, used commonly in the singu- 
lar, are also elliptical, and may be supplied thus, " As it 
concerns," or " As far as it concerns, regards," &c, as 
(it) appears, is always in the singular. In the plural, 
the noun or pronoun is commonly expressed thus, " These 
things as they " concern," or, " as far as they concern us" 
— or, " As far as these things concern us," &c. In this 
way, there is no necessity for considering these expres- 



I 

§ 86. SYNTAX. 147 

sions are impersonal verbs, nor for depriving as of its con- 
junctive character. 

4. So and Such. 
When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the 
word such is properly applied ; as, " Such a temper is 
seldom found." But when degree is signified, we use the 
word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." Yet 
so is hardly ever used before an adjective followed by a 
plural noun. In this case, such is used instead of it, to 
express degree. Thus, we say, " Such beautiful flowers I 
have seldom seen," not, " so beautiful flowers." Still it 
would be correct to say, " I have never seen flowers so 
beautiful." 

5. Disappointed of, — Disappointed in. 

We are disappointed of a thing when we expect it and 

do not get it — and disappointed in it, when we have it and 

it does not answer our expectations. Hence a person 

may be disappointed in that which he is not disappointed of. 

6. Taste of, and Taste for. 

A taste of a thing, implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a 
taste for it, implies only capacity for enjoyment ; as, 
" When we have had a true taste of the pleasures of virtue, 
we can have no relish for those of vice." " He had a taste 
for such studies, and pursued them earnestly." 
7. Position of Adjectives. 

Adjectives should be placed next their substantives. 
Thus, it is incorrect to say, "a new pair of shoes," " a 
fine field of corn,'' " a good glass of wine," &c. because 
the adjectives in these sentences qualify " shoes," " corn," 
" wine," and not " pair," " field," " glass," with which they 
are joined. The phrases should be, " A pair of new shoes." 
"A field of fine corn." " A glass of good wine." 

8. But that. 
But is often improperly used before that, after words 
which imply doubt or fear ; as, " 1 doubt not hut that he 
will fulfil his promise." This would seem to say, " I doubt 
nothing save one thing, namely, that he will fulfil his pro- 
mise ; " whereas, that is the very thing not doubted. Re- 
move the put, and you preserve the sense. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 86 

9. Older, Oldest,— Elder, Eldest 
Older and oldest refer to maturity of age, elder and eldest 
to priority of right by birth. Thus, " Horner is an older 
author than Virgil." " Being the eldest of the family, he 
succeeded to the estate." 

10. Farther and Farthest, — Further and Furthest. 
Farther and farthest donote place or distance : Further 
and furthest, quantity or addition ; as, " The farther they 
advanced, the more interesting was the scene." " I have 
nothing further to say on this subject." Farther is the 
comparative, and farthest, the superlative of far ; Further 
and furthest, of fore or forth. 

11. Later, latest,— Latter, last, — Next, nearest. 
Later and latest, compared from late, have respect to 
time ; latter and last, to place or position, and are employed 
without so direct a reference to comparison. Next refers 
either to time or place ; nearest, to place only. 

12. Past, passed. 

Past is an adjective ; passed, the past tense or perfect 
participle of the verb* and they ought not, as is frequently 
done, to be confounded with each other. 
13. Lay, lie, — Set, sit. 

Lay and lie are distinct in meaning and application, and 
cannot be used indiscriminately. The use of the former 
for the latter is an error exceedingly prevalent, and should 
be corrected. Thus we constantly hear such expressions 
as, " It lays on the table." " It laid there yesterday." 
Lie is a neuter verb ; Lay is active, and means to make lie. 
The past tense of lie, is lay, and perf. participle, lain. The 
past tense of lay, is laid, and perf. participle, laid. Thus, 
The bricklayer lays bricks, and being laid, they lie. The 
book lies on the shelf ; it was laid there a week ago, and 
has lain ever since. The same distinction should be ob- 
served between set and sit. 

14. " Be that as it willy is a common, but inaccurate 
expression. It ought to be, " Be that as it may," or may 
have been. 

15, " Seldom or ever " is not correct. It should be 
seldom or never ; or, seldom if ever. 



§ 87. 



SYNTAX. 



149 



§ 87. A LIST OF IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS. 

SELECTED CHIEFLY FROM PICKERING'S VOCABULARY. 



i should admire to go to sea. 

1 allot upon going. 

The alone God. The alone motive. 

I anH; you an't ; he an't, &c. 

Aiiy manner of means. 

His discourse was approbated. 

To sell at auction. 

Re was walking back and forth. 

Part were good, the balance were bad. 

His argument was based on this fact. 

Where be you I Here I be. 

The money was ordered paid. 

I would not belittle or demean myself. 

He was paid for his betterments. 

I calculate to leave town soon. 

A chunk of bread. 

A clever* house. * 

He conducts well. 

He is considerable of a scholar. 

His farm was convenient to mine. 

The creatures^ must be sent to pasture. 

Curious apples ; curious cider, &c. 

He is a decent scholar, writer. 

Her situation was distressing to a degree 

Such conduct was very derogatory. 

A total destitution of capacity. 

The United States, or either of them. 

Equally as well — as good, &c. 

Mr. A B , Esq. 

I think it will eventuate in this. 
I expect % they be. 
I expect he must have died long ago. 
These things are in a bad fix. 
Will you fix these things for me 1 
Firstly, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
How do your folks do 1 
What do folks think of it 1 
Will you go by and dine with me 1 
Talents of the highest grade. 
Do you love play 1 I guess t 1 do. 
You will tell another guess (guise; sto- 
ry soou. 
We may hope the assistance of God. 
A horse colt ; A mare colt. 
It would illy accord. 
When did you come in town. 

In good case ; or kelter. 
Where do you keep ?—put up ? 
A lengthy sermon, &c. 



I should like to go to sea. 

I intend to go. 

The one God. The only motive. 

I am not ; you are not ; he is not, &c. 

Any means. 

His'discourse was approved. 

To sell by auction. 

backwards and forwards. 

■ the remainder, or the rest were 

bad. 
His argument was founded on this fact. 
Where are you ? Here I am. 
The money was ordered to be paid. 
I would not degrade myself. 
He was paid for his improvements. 
I intend to leave town soon. 
A piece of bread. 
A good house. 

He conducts himself well, respectably. 
He is a pretty good scholar. 
His farm was contiguous to mine, close. 
The cattle must be sent to pasture. 
Excellent apples ; excellent cider, &c. 
He is a pretty good scholar, writer. 

was extremely distressing. 

was very degrading. 

A total want of capacity. 
The United States, or any of them. 
Equally well, or just as well, &c. 
A B , Esq. 



■ will end, or terminate, in this. 



I believe they are. 

I think he must have died, &c. 

in a bad state, or condition. 

Will you put these things in order for me ? 

First, secondly, &c: 

How is your family 1 

What do people think of it ? 

Will you go by my house and dine ? 

Talents of the highest order. 

there is no doubt of that 

another kind of story. 

We may hope for the assistance of God. 

A colt : A filly. 

It would ill accord. 

When did you come into town. § 77. 

Obs. 2. 
In good condition, good order. 
At whose house do you stay ? 
A long sermon, &c. 



* The word clever, applied to persons, in the English sense, means active, quick, 
ingenious ; in the American sense, of a kind, obliging disposition. 

t This word, in the northern states, is a general term for horses, cattle, sheep, 
swine, &c. 

; Expect is properly applied to things to come ; guess^ to things uncertain 
never to things present, or about which there is no doubt. 

14* 



150 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



§87, 



Why don't you strike like I do ? 

He is a very likely man. 

Will you. loan me a few dollars 1 

I was mad at him. 

Mighty cold ; mighty fine. 

The public are hereby notified.* 

Obnoxious | doctrines. 

He will once in a while get drunk. 

He went up on to the roof. 

What had that ought to be 1 

Over the signature of Junius.? 

He still plead not guilty. 

They are not very plenty^ 

He is rather poorly. 

Predicated on former proceedings. 

The work progresses slowly. 

Not proven. 

I was raised in Virginia. 

A committee was raised. 

The price will raise soon. 

1 reckon he will. 

The council resulted, that, &c 

Such doctrines revolt us. 

A rugged child. 

T sat out on my journey. 

The market is full of sauce. 

You have too much sauce. 

I see him, I seen him yesterday. 

Serious people. 

He is some better than he was. 

I have had a spell of sickness. 

Be spry. He is a springy man. 

He shews much temper^ 

He is an ugly fellow. 

For the construction of wharves. 



— — as I do, or, like as I do. 
He is a very good looking man. 

— lend me a few dollars. 

I was angry with him. 
Very cold ; very fine. 
Notice is hereby given. 
Hurtful or offensive doctrines. 

sometimes get drunk. 

He went up to the roof. 

What should that be ? 

Under the signature of Junius. 

pleaded not guilty. 

They arc not very plentiful. 

rather indisposed. 

Founded on former proceedings. 
The work advances slowly. 
Not proved. 

I was brought up in V. 

was formed or appointed. 

' will rise soon. 

I suppose he will. 

came to the conclusion, that, &c 

We revolt at such doctrines. 
A robust or healthy child. 
I set out, &c. 

full of vegetables. 

- too much impertinence. 

I saw him yesterday. 
Religious people. 

somewhat better. 

I have been sick for some tima 
Be quick. An active man. 

much warmth of temper. 

■ a fellow of bad disposition. 

• of wharfs. 



* Notify signifies to make known, " to notify the public-," therefore, is *r to 
rnaka the public known." We notify a thing to a person, and not a person of a 
thing. 

f Obnoxious signifies liable to, and should not be used for hurtful or offensive. 

% On this expression, Pickering remarks : " A few of our writers still counte- 
nance this unwarrantable innovation ; but the principle on which it is defended 
would unsettle the whole language." We might with equal propriety say, 
" Given over my hand and seal.'' " It is so well known to be the constant prac- 
tice of the best English and American writers to say, { under a name, and under 
;i signature,' that it will hardly be credited that any who speak the English lan- 
guage could have questioned the propriety of it." The term under, in such 
phrases, is figurative, and means, under the sanction, authority, or responsibility 
of. It has nothing to do with the mere relative position of the writing, and the 
name or signature attached to it ; — a circumstance in itself of no consequence 
whatever, but which, nevertheless, is all that the term over is capable of expressing. 

|| Temper, in the American sense, means warmth of temper, passion. In 
England it means " moderation, coolness." In this sense the words temperate 
and intemperate are always understood. 



§ 88. SYNTAX. 151 

§88. PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing a written 
composition into sentences, or parts of sentences, 
by points or stops, in order to convey to the reader 
the exact sense, and assist him in the proper de- 
livery. 

The principal stops are the following : — 

The Comma ( , ) the semicolon ( ; ) the colon ( : ) 
the period, or full stop ( . ) the note of interroga- 
tion (?) the note of exclamation (!) the parenthe- 
sis ( ) and the dash ( — ) 

The comma represents the shortest pause; the 
semicolon a pause double that of the comma ; the 
colon, double that of the semicolon ; and the period, 
double that of the colon. 

The duration of the pauses must be left to the taste of the reader 
or speaker. 

By the term adjunct is meant, any number of words added by way 
of modifying or qualifying the principal words j thus, " Cicero, the 
eloquent Cicero, suffered an ignominious death;" the phrase, the 
eloquent Cicero, is the adjunct of Cicero, 

RULES FOR THE PROPER PUNCTUATION OF A COMPOSITION. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The comma usually separates those parts of a sentence 
which, though very closely connected in sense and con- 
struction, require a pause between them. 

Rule 1. — A simple sentence, when it is a short one, aamits 
only a period at the end ; as, " No state of life is exempt from 
trouble." 

When a simple sentence is a long one, and the nominative case 
is accompanied by inseparable adjuncts, a comma must be inserted 
before the verb; as, "A steady and undivided attention to one 
object, is a sure mark of superior genius." " The necessity of an 
early acquaintance with history, has always been acknowledged." 



152 ENGLISH GBAMMAB, § 88. 

Rule 2. — The simple members of a compound sentence are sepa- 
rated by commas ; as, " When the graces of novelty are worn off, 
admiration is succeeded by indifference." "Crafty men contemn 
studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them." 

But when the members are closely connected, the comma is 
unnecessary; as, "Revelation tells us how we may attain happi- 
ness." 

Rule 3. — Two words of the same part of speech, whether 
nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or adverbs, do not admit a 
comma between them when connected by a conjunction ; as, " The 
earth and the moon are planets." "Time brings a gentle and 
powerful opiate to all misfortunes." "The man of order catches 
and arrests the hours as they fly." "By encouraging and ani- 
mating him, he became clever." " Success generally depends on 
acting prudently and vigorously." " We must either live virtuously or 
viciously." 

But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is inserted be- 
tween the words ; as, " Reason, passion answer one great end." "He 
is a plain, honest man." 

Rule 4. — Three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, participles, or 
adverbs, with or without a conjunction, are separated by commas ; as, 
" Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." " David was a brave, 
wise, and prudent prince." " The sight, the hearing, the feeling, the 
taste, and the smell, are the five natural senses," 

When words follow each other in pairs, there is a comma be- 
tween each pair ; as, " Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, 
desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war." 

Rule 5. — The words used in a direct address, the case absolute, 
a short expression in the manner of a quotation, and the infinitive 
mood absolute when it is not used as a nominative case, should be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by commas ; as, " My son^ 
hear the counsels of thy father." " I remain, Sir, your obedient 
servant." " The time of youth being precious, we should devote it to 
the purposes of improvement." " Plutarch calls lying, the vice oj 
slaves." " To enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed future ease and 
reputation." 

Rule 6. — A single name in apposition is not separated by a comma ; 
as, " The apostle Peter ; " " The emperor Antoninus." But when 
such name is accompanied with an adjunct, the adjunct should have a 
comma before and after it; as, " Augustus, the Roman emperor, was a 



§ 8S. SYNTAX. 153 

patron of the fine arts." " Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles, was emi- 
nent for his zeal and knowledge." 

Rule 7. — Simple members of sentences connected by comparatives, 
and phrases placed in opposition to, or in contrast with, each ottoftr, 
We separated by commas; thus, "As the hart panteth after the 
Water brooks, so doth my soul after thee." " They are sometimes 
in union with, and sometimes in opposition to, the views of each 
other." 

" Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull, 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 

Sometimes when one word follows the last preposition, a comma 
must not be inserted before it ; as, " He was much attached to, and 
concerned for John." 

When the members of comparative sentences are short, the comma 
is omitted ; as, "How much better is wisdom than gold." 

Rule 8. — All adjuncts or explanatory phrases, either at the beginning, 
middle, or end of a simple sentence, are separated from it by commas; 
as, " With gratitude, I remember his goodness tome." "I remember, 
•with gratitude, his goodness to me." " His talents, formed for great 
enterprizes, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous.'' " Vices, 
like shadoios, towards the evening of life, grow great and monstrous." 
" I saw the captain, as he is calledy 

A comma must also be inserted between the two parts of a sentence, 
which have their natural order inverted ; as, "To God, nothing is "im- 
possible ; " that is, " Nothing is impossible to God." 

Rule 9. — A comma must be inserted before the relative, when the 
clause immediately after it is used as explanatory of the antecedent 
clause ; as, " He, who disregards the good opinion of the world, must 
be utterly abandoned ; " or, "He must be utterly abandoned, who dis- 
regards the good opinion of the world." 

But when the relative is so closely connected with its antecedent, 
that it cannot be transposed, a comma must not be inserted before it ; 
as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." " I have 
carefully perused the book which you lent me." 

Rule 10. — When any tense of the verb to be is followed by a verb 
in the infinitive mood, which, by transposition, might be made the 
nominative case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter 
verb by a comma ; as, " The best preservative of health is, to be tem- 
perate in all our gratifications." " To be temperate in all our gratifi* 
cations, is the best preservative of health." 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 88. 

Rule 1 1. — When a verb is understood, a comma must be inserted ; 
as, " Reading makes a full man ; conference, a ready man ; and writ- 
ing, an exact man." 

Rule 12. — The word that used as a conjunction is preceded by a 
comma ; as, " Be virtuous, that you may be happy." 

Adverbs, prepositions, or conjunctions, used to connect or introduce 
a new member, must be separated from the preceding part of the sen- 
tence by a comma; as, "The instructions of adversity may be whole- 
some, though unpleasing." "The wise man seeketh wisdom, but the 
fool despiseth understanding,?' 

Rule 13.— The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, 
now, lastly, in fact, therefore, toherefore, however, besides, indeed, and 
all other words and phrases of the same kind, must, when considered 
of importance, be separated from the context by a comma, according 
to rule 8th ; as, " Besides, our reputation does not depend on the ca- 
price of man, but on our own good actions.*' " Lastly, strive to pre- 
serve a conscience void of offence towards God and man." " If the 
apring put forth no blossoms, in summer there will be no beauty, and 
in autumn, no fruit ; so, if youth be trifled away without improvement, 
riper years may be contemptible, and old age miserable." 

When, however, these phrases are not considered important, 
and particularly in short sentences, the comma is not inserted ; as t 
"There is surely a pleasure in acting kindly." "Idleness cer- 
tainly is the mother of all vices." " He was at last convinced of his 
error." 

*** The foregoing rules will, it is hoped, be found comprehensive ; yet there 
may be some cases in which the student must rely on his own judgment. 

In composing works for the press, many authors merely insert a period at the 
end of each sentence, and leave the rest to be pointed by the printers, who, from 
their constant practice, are supposed to have acquired a uniform mode of punc 
tuation, 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sen- 
tence, which are less closely connected than those which 
are separated by a comma. 

Rule 1. — When the first division of a sentence contains a com- 
plete proposition, but is followed by a clause which is added as an 
inference, or to give some explanation, the two parts must be 
separated by a semicolon; as, "Perform your duty faithfully; for 
this will procure you the blessing of heaven." " The orator make* 



§ 88. syntax. 155 

the truth plain to his hearers ; he awakens them ; he excites them 
to action ; he shews them their impending danger." " Be in peace 
with many ; nevertheless, have but one counsellor of a thousand." 

Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow each other, having 
merely a slight connexion in idea, though in other respects complete 
in themselves, they may be separated by a semicolon; as, "Every 
thing grows old ; every thing passes away ; every thing disappears." 
" The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero ; tragedy represents a 
disastrous event ; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind ; 
pastoral poetry describes rural life j and elegy displays the tender emo- 
tions of the heart.'* 

OF THE COLON.. 

The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or 
more parts, less connected than those which are separa- 
ted by a semicolon, but not so independent as to require a 
period. 

Rule 1. — A colon is used when a member of a sentence is com- 
plete in itself, both in sense and construction, but is followed by some 
additional remark or illustration, depending upon it in sense, though 
not in syntax ; as, " A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he 
can never pass : in a few years he has all the endowments he is capa- 
ble of, and were he to live ten thousand more, would be the same 
thing he is at present." " Study to acquire a habit of thinking : no 
study is more important." 

Rule 2. — When a sentence contains several perfect members 
separated by semicolons, the concluding member requires a colon 
before it ; as, u A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; 
an Almighty Governor stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; 
informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, 
and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked: these are the 
considerations which; overawe the world, which support integrity and 
check guilt." 

Rule 3. — Either the colon or semicolon may be used when an 
example, a quotation, or a speech is introduced ; as, "Always re- 
member this ancient maxim ; " Know thyself. 11 u The scriptures give 
us an amiable representation of the Deity, in these words : * God is 
love, 1 " 

Rule 4. — The insertion or omission ©f a conjunction before the con- 
cluding member of a sentence, frequently determines the use of the? 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 88. 

colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not expressed before 
the concluding member, the colon is to be used ; but when it is ex- 
pressed, the semicolon is used ; as, " Apply yourself to learning : it 
will redound to your honour." " Apply yourself to learning ; for it 
will redound to your honour." 

OF THE PERIOD. 
When a sentence is complete, with respect to the con- 
struction and the sense intended, a period must be used ; 
as, " God made all things." " By disappointments and 
trials, the violence of our passions is tamed." " In the va- 
rieties of life, we are inured to habits both of the active and 
the passive virtues." 

A period is sometimes inserted between sentences which are con- 
nected by conjunctions; as, "Our position is, that happiness does 
not consist in greatness. And this position we make out by shewing, 
that even what are supposed to be the peculiar advantages of greatness, 
the pleasures of ambition and superiority, are in reality common to all 
conditions. But whether the pursuits of ambition are ever wise, 
whether they contribute more to the happiness or misery of the pur- 
suers, is a different question ; and a question concerning which we 
may be allowed to entertain great doubt." 

The period must be used after all abbreviations ; as, 
"A. D." "M. A." "Fol." 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN COMPOSITION. 

Interrogation (?) is used when a question is asked. 

Admiration (!) or Exclamation, is used to express any sudden emotion of the 

mind. 
Parenthesis ( ) is used to enclose some necessary remark in the body of another 

sentence ; commas are now commonly used instead of Parenthesis. 
Apostrophe (') is used in place of a letter left out ; as lov'd for loved. 
Caret (a) is used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined. 
Hyphen (-) is used at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word is at 

the beginning of the next line. It also connects compound words ; as, 

Tea-pot ; Father-in-law. 
Section (§) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions. 
Paragraph (IT) is used to denote the beginning of a new subject. 
Crotchets ([ ]) or Brackets, are used to enclose a word or sentence which is to 

be explained in a note, or the explanation itself, or to correct a mistake, 

or supply some deficiency. 
Quotation (" ") is used to show that a passage is quoted in the author's words. 



§88. 



SYNTAX. 



157 



Index {§£?") is used to point out any thing remarkable. 

P ( is used to connect words which have one common term, or three lines in 

Brace j poetry, having the same rhyme, called a triplet. 

Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omited ; as, K — g for King. 

Acute accent (') is used to denote a short syllable ; the grave 0) a long. 
Breve ( ^ ) marks a short vowel or syllable, and the Dash ( — ) a long. 
Diaeresis (••) is used to divide a dipthong into two syllables; as, aerial. 
Asterisk (*)— Obelisk (f)— Double Dagger (J)— and Parallels (||) with small 

letters and figures, refer to some note on the margin, or at the bottom of 

the page. 
C* * *) Two or three asterisks denote the omission of some letters in some bold 

or indelicate expression, or some defect in the manuscript. 
Dash ( ) is used to denote abruptness— a significant pause — an unexpected 

turn in the sentiment — or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as 

in this definition of a dash. 



Latin. 


ABRE\ 


NATIONS. 

English. 


Ante Christum* 


A. C. 


Before Christ 


Artium Baccalaureus 


A. B. 


Bachelor of Arts (often B. A.) 


Anno Domini 


A. D. 


In the year of our. Lord 


Artium Magister 


A.M. 


Master of Arts 


Anno Mundi 


A.M. 


In the year of the world 


Ante Meridiem 


A. M. 


In the forenoon 


Anno Urbis Conditae 


A. U. C. 


In the year after the building of the city 


Baccalaureus Divinitatis 


B. D. 


Bachelor of Divinity [ — Rome 


Custos Privati Sigilli 


C. P. S. 


Keeper of the Privy Seal 


Custos Sigilli 


C. S. 


Keeper of the Seal 


Doctor Divinitatis 


D. D. 


Doctor of Divinity 


Exempli gratia 


e.g. 


For example 


Regies Societatis Socius 


R. S. S. 


Fellow of the Royal Society 


Regies Societatis Antiquario- R. S. A. S 


. Fellow of the Royal Society of Anti- 


rum Socius 




quaries 


Georgius Rex 


G.R. 


George the King 


Id est 


i. e. 


That is 


Jesus Hominium Salvator 


J. H. S. 


Jesus the Saviour of men 


Legum Doctor 


L. L. D, 


Doctor of Laws 


Locus Sigilli 


L. S. 


Place of the Seal 


Messieurs (French) 


Messrs. 


Gentlemen 


Medicinae Doctor 


M. D. 


Doctor of Medicine 


Memoriae Sacrum 


M. S. 


Sacred to the Memory (or S. M.) 


Nota Bene 


N.B. 


Note well : Take notice 


Post Meridiem 


P.M. 


In the afternoon 


Post Scriptum 


P. S. 


Postscript, something written after 


Ultimo 


Oft. 


Last, (month) 


Et Caetera 


&c. 


And the rest ; and so forth 


A. Answer. Alexander 


L. C. J. 


Lord Chief Justice 


Acct- Account 


Knt. 


Knight 


Bart. Baronet 


K. G. 


Knight of the Garter 


Bp. Bishop 


KB. 


Knight of the Bath 


Capt. Captain 


K. C. B. 


Knt. Commander of the Bath 


Col. Colonel 


K. C. 


Knt. of the Crescent ^ 
Knight of St. Patrick 


Cr. Creditor 


K. P. 


Dr. Debtor, Doctor 


K. T. 


Knight of the Thistle 


Do. or Ditto. The same 


MS. 


Manuscript 



* The Latin of these Abbreviations is inserted, not to be got by heart, but to 
show the etymology of the English ; or explain, for instance, how P. M. comes 
to mean afternoon, &c. 

15 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 89. 

Viz.* Namely MSS, Manuscripts 

Q,. Question, Queen N. S. New Style 

R. N. Royal Navy O. S. Old Style 

Esq. Esquire J. P. Justice of the Peace 

PARAGRAPHS. 

Different subjects, unless they are very short, or very numerous, 
should be separated into paragraphs. 

When one subject is continued to a considerable length, the larger 
divisions of it should be put into distinct paragraphs. 

The facts, premises, and conclusions, of a subject, sometimes 
naturally point out the separations into paragraphs : and each of these, 
when of great length, will again require subdivisions at the most dis- 
tinctive parts. 

In cases which require a connected subject to be formed into several 
paragraphs, a suitable turn of expression, exhibiting the connexion of 
the broken parts, will give beauty and force to the division. 

§ 89. OF CAPITALS. 
Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, both 
in writing and in printing ; but at present only the follow- 
ing words begin with capital letters : — 

1 . The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or 
any other piece of writing. 

2. The first word after a period ; also after a note of in- 
terrogation, or exclamation, when the sentence before, and 
the one after it, are independent of each other. 

But if several interrogative or exclamatory sentences are so connected, that the 
latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the first, may begin with 
a small letter; as, "How doth the city sit solitary, that was full of people ! how 
are her habitations become as desolate ! how is she become as a widow ! " 

3. Proper names, that is, names of persons, places, 
ships, &c. 

4. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, are written in 
capitals. 

5. The first word of every line in poetry. 

6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most High, 
the xilmighty, the Supreme Being, &c. 

* Contracted from videlicit. 



§ 90. SYNTAX. 159 

7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; 
as, Grecian, Roman, English, &c. 

8. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a 
colon ; as, always remember this ancient maxim : " Know 
thyself." 

When a quotation is not introduced in the direct form, but follows a comma, 
the first word must not begin with a capital ; as, Solomon observes, that • pride 
goes before destruction. 7 

9. Common nouns when personified ; as, " Come, gentle 
Spring." 

10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles 
of books ; as, " Euclid's Elements of Geometry ; " " Gold- 
smith's Deserted Village." 

Note. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with capitals, when they 
are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject of the composition. 

§ 90. RHETORICAL DIVISIONS OF A DISCOURSE. 

The principal parts of a discourse are generally six in number, viz. 
the Exo/dium, the Narration, the Proposition, the Confirmation, the 
Refutation, and the Peroration, 

The Exordium, or beginning of a discourse, is the part in which the 
writer or speaker gives some intimation of his subject, and solicits the 
favor and attention of his audience or readers. 

The Narration is a brief recital of all the facts connected with the 
case, from beginning to end. 

The Proposition is the part in which is given the true state of the 
question, specifying the points maintained, and those in which the 
writer or speaker differs from his adversary. 

The Confirmation assembles all the proofs and arguments that can 
be adduced in support of what has been attempted to be established. 
The stronger begin and end this part, and the weaker are reserved for 
the middle. 

The Refutation is the part in which the writer or speaker answers 
the arguments and objections of his opponent. 

In the Peroration or Conclusion, he sums up the principal argu- 
ments, and endeavors to excite the passions of his reader or hearer in 
his favor. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 91. 

§ 91. DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOSITION. 

All Composition, whether spoken or written, is of two kinds, either 
Prose or Poetry. 

Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts and sentiments 
are expressed in common and ordinary language. 

Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and sentiments 
are expressed by such a selection and arrangement of words as pleases 
the ear and captivates the fancy. 

Thousands write and speak in prose for one who does so in verse, 
yet it is generally allowed that poetic compositions in all countries have 
preceded those of prose. 

Compositions, whether in prose or poetry, are divided into different 
classes, and arranged under various heads. 

I. DIFFERENT KINDS OF PROSE COMPOSITION. 

The different kinds into which prose compositions may be divided, 
are, Narrative, Letters, Memoirs, History, Biography, Essays, Philo- 
sophy, Sermons, Novels, and Speeches or Orations. 

Narrative is a plain and simple statement of such facts and oc- 
currences as a person. may have either seen or heard, and includes in 
it Voyages and Travels of all descriptions. 

Letters are those easy and familiar compositions which pass from 
one person to another, and may be appropriated to every description 
of subject, though generally relating to the common and ordinary oc- 
currences of life and business. 

Memoirs consist of loose and familiar records of individuals 
or nations, without that regularity of method which history and bio- 
graphy require. 

History is a regular account of the past transactions of some par- 
ticular age or nation, and details chiefly plans of government, move- 
ments of armies, and events of great and general interest 

Biography is a particular species of history, and consists of an ac- 
count of the birth, death, and most important occurrences in the life of 
some eminent individual. 

Essay means trial or attempt, and is a modest term assumed at 
the pleasure of the writer, as the title of almost any species of compo- 
sition, though it is generally employed to denote such writings as the 
Spectator, Rambler, &c. 



§ 91. SYNTAX. 161 

Philosophy or Philosophical Compositions are those in whieh the 
principles of art and science are inculcated, and the various phenomena 
of the Natural and Moral world investigated. 

Sermons are illustrations of some doctrine of Scripture, or exhor- 
tations to the practice of some moral and religious duty, enjoined by 
Christianity. 

Novels are those compositions which give an account of characters 
and events that have in reality never existed, but have been invented 
or supposed by the author for the purpose either of affording pleasure, 
or inculcating some important lesson. 

Speeches and Orations are those addresses which are made 
either at the Bar or in Public Assemblies, for the purpose of persnad- 
ing the hearers of the truth of certain opinions, or leading to the adop- 
tion of certain modes of action. 

II. DIFFERENT KINDS OF POETRY. 

The different kinds, into which poetry may be divided, are, the 
Epigram, the Epitaph, the Sonnet, Pastoral, Didactic, Satiric, Descrip- 
tive, Elegiac, Lyric, Dramatic, and Epic or Heroie, poetry. 

An Epigram is a short, witty poem, the point or humour of which is 
brought out in the concluding lines. 

An Epitaph is an inscription on a tombstone, in commemoration 
of some departed person. 

The Sonnet, which is of Italian origin, means a little song, and 
consists generally of fourteen lines, constructed in a peculiar man- 
ner. 

Pastoral poetry is that which relates to rural life; though k 
sometimes assumes the form of a simple song or ballad. 

Didactic poetry is that by which some art or duty is inculcated ; 
and, though forming a distinct class of itself, yet its characteristics are 
so general as to extend to almost every description of poetry. 

Satires are poems intended to ridicule vices and follies, and hold 
them up to contempt. They have been divided into two classes ; the 
jocose or ludicrous, and the serious or declamatory. 

Descriptive poetry may be classed under two divisions ; that, 
by which is offered to our view a delineation of nature, or of natural 

15* h 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 91. 

scenery, and that, by which are described the manners, sentiments, 
and passions of men. 

Elegy was first employed in lamentation for the decease of great 
persons, or of those who were particularly dear to the writer ; but it 
was afterwards extended in its application, and employed to express 
the misery of disappointed love, and even at times made the vehicle of 
moral sentiment. 

Lyric poetry is such as may be sung or set to music, which both 
the term ode, and the epithet lyric, from lyre, a musical instrument, 
imply. There is the serious and sublime ode ; and the familiar and 
comic, which, in modern language, is denominated the song. 

By Dramatic poetry is generally meant a poem in blank verse, 
called a play, and fitted for representation on the stage. It is of two 
kinds, Tragic and Comic. 

An Epic poem is a historical representation or description of some 
great and important action, involving the interests of the whole, or of a 
large portion, of mankind. 



PART IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody consists of two parts ; Elocution and 
Versification. 

§ 92. ELOCUTION. 

Elocution is correct pronunciation, or the 
proper management of the voice in reading or 
speaking. 

The utility of Elocution will be evident, when we consider that the 
finest composition and the most brilliant ideas may be materially in- 
jured, and, in some cases, totally destroyed, by a bad and insipid 
delivery ; while, on the other hand, noble sentiments, properly and 
gracefully delivered, produce an astonishing effect on the mind of the 
hearer. 

In order to read and speak with grace and effect, 
attention must be paid to the proper pitch of the 
voice, the accent and quantity of the syllables, and 
to emphasis, pauses, and tones. 

1. THE VOICE. 

1. The voice must be neither too loud nor too low. An overstrained 
voice is inconvenient to the speaker, and disagreeable to the hearer ; 
while a voice that is too low, besides being inaudible, indicates either 
indolence or want of attention. Endeavour, therefore, so to preserve 
the command of your voice, not only in each sentence, but throughout 
the discourse, that you may elevate or lower it according to the num- 
ber of persons that you address, and the nature of the place in which 
you speak. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 92. 

2. The voice must not be thick and indistinct. Never mumble 
or clip your words, by omitting to pronounce some of the short 
words, and some syllables in the long words ; for it is very disagree- 
able to hear an individual hurrying on without any care either to 
be heard distinctly, or to give his words their full and proper sound. 
Accustom yourself, both in conversation and in reading, to give 
every sound which you utter its due proportion, so that every word 
and every syllable may be clearly and distinctly heard. Observe 
with what" deliberation some read and converse, how full a sound 
they give to every word ; and let such persons be models for your 
imitation. 

3. The utterance must be neither too quick nor too slow. When we 
speak too quick, the hearer finds a difficulty in keeping pace with our 
movements ; whilst, by a slow and heavy delivery, he becomes languid 
and careless. Endeavour, therefore, to convey to the hearer the sense, 
weight, and propriety of every sentence you read, in a free, full, and 
deliberate pronunciation. 

4. The voice must not be irregular or uneven, nor yet dull nor uniform, 
but modulated according to the nature of the subject. Do not begin your 
periods either in too high or in too low a key : for this may lead to its 
being unnaturally and improperly varied. Attend to the nature and 
quantity of your points, and the length of your periods ; and keep 
your mind intent on the sense, subject, and spirit of the author. 



2. ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 

Accent is the laying of a particular stress of the 
voice on a certain syllable in a word ; as, the syllable 
vir in the word virtue* 

A proper accentuation is of importance, and it can be acquired only 
by attending to correct speakers, and frequently consulting a good 
Pronouncing Dictionary. Walker's Dictionary is considered the 
standard for pronunciation. 

The Quantity of a syllable, is that time which 
is required to pronounce it. 

A long syllable requires double the time of a 
short one in pronouncing it; thus, pine, tube^ 



§ 92. prosody. 165 

should be pronounced as slowly again as pin and 
iub> 

3. By Emphasis is meant that stress of the voice 
which we lay on some particular word or words, 
in order to mark their superior importance in the 
sentence, and thereby the better to convey the idea 
intended by the writer or speaker. 

A person who clearly comprehends what he says in private con- 
versation, never fails to place the emphasis on the right word ; when, 
therefore, he is about to read or repeat the words of others or his own, 
let him only consider where he would lay the emphasis, supposing 
those words proceeded from the immediate sentiment of his own mind 
m private discourse. 

There is one error, against which it is necessary particularly to 
caution the learner, namely, that of too great a multiplication of em- 
phatical words. It is only by a judicious use of them that we can 
give them any weight If they recur too often ; if a reader or speaker 
appears desirous, by a multitude of strong emphases, to render every 
thing which he expresses particularly important, we soon learn to pay 
little regard to them. To crowd every sentence with emphatical 
words, is like crowding all the pages of a book with Italic characters, 
which, as to the effect, is just the same as to use no such distinctions 
at all. 

4. Pauses, or rests, are cessations of the voice, 
in order to enable the reader or speaker to take 
breath ; and to give the hearer a distinct perception 
of the meaning, not only of each sentence, but of the 
whole discourse. 

Pauses are of two kinds; first, emphatical pauses ; and next, such 
as serve to distinguish the sense. 

Emphatical pauses are used after something has been said which is 
of importance, and on which we wish to fix the hearer's attention. 
Sometimes they are made to introduce an emphatical sentence; but 
then the matter must be really important, otherwise the expectation 
is disappointed. These pauses, like emphases, ought not to be used 
too frequently. 



166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 92. 

With respect to pauses which seme to distinguish the sense, it is 
proper to observe, that the voice should be relieved at every stop ; 
slightly at a comma, longer at a semicolon, still move so at a colon, 
and completely at a period. An excellent method for preventing the 
habit of taking breath too frequently, is, to accustom yourself to read 
sentences of considerable length, and those which abound with long 
and difficult words. 

Pauses, whether in reading or in public discourse, must always be 
formed upon the manner in which we utter ourselves in ordinary, sen- 
sible conversation, and not upon any stiff, artificial manner which is 
sometimes acquired. 

There are likewise two kinds of pauses peculiar to poetry ; one is, 
the final pause at the end of the line, and the other, the csesural pause 
at or near the middle of the line. 

In reading blank verse, the close of each line should be made sensi- 
ble to the ear, but without letting the voice fall, or elevating it ; it 
should be marked only by such a slight suspension of sound, as may 
distinguish the passage from one line to another without injuring the 
sense. 

The coosural pause divides the line into two parts. It is necessary 
in every line of eight, ten, or twelve syllables, and is generally placed 
at the end of the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable. 

5. Tones consist in the modulation of the voice, 
the notes or variations of sound which we employ 
in speaking. 

The different passions of the mind must be expressed by different 
tones of the voice. Love, by a soft, smooth, languishing voice ; 
anger, by a strong, vehement, and elevated voice; joy, by a quick, 
sweet, and clear voice ; sorrow, by a low, flexible, interrupted voice ,* 
fear, by a dejected, tremulous, hesitating voice ; courage, by a full, 
bold, and loud voice ; and perplexity, by a grave, steady, and earnest 
voice. In exordiums the voice should be low, yet clear ; in narrations, 
distinct ; in reasoning, slow ; in persuasions, strong : it should 
thunder in anger, soften in sorrow, tremble in fear, and melt in 
love. 

In the antithesis, the contrary assertion must be pronounced louder 
than the other. In a climax, the voice should always rise with it. In 
dialogues, it should alter with the parts. 

The voice should be steadily and firmly supported throughout the 
sentence, and the concluding words ought to be modulated according 



§ 92. prosody. 167 

to the general nature of the discourse, and the particular construction 
and meaning of the sentence. Such sentences are so constructed, 
that the last words require a stronger emphasis than any of the pre- 
ceding ; while others admit of being closed with a soft and gentle 
sound. Where there is nothing in the sense which requires the last 
sound to be elevated or emphatical, an easy fall, sufficient to show 
that the sense is finished, will be proper. And in pathetic pieces it is 
necessary that there should be a still greater cadence of the voice. 

The tones of public speaking must be formed upon those of sensi- 
ble animated conversation. The best rule, therefore, is to follow Na- 
ture ; consider how she teaches you to utter any sentiment or feeling 
of the heart. Imagine a subject of debate introduced into conversation, 
and yourself bearing a share in it. Think after what manner, with 
what tones and inflections of voice, you would on such an occasion ex- 
press yourself, when you were most in earnest, and sought most to 
be listened to by those whom you addressed. Let these be the foun- 
dation of your manner of pronouncing in public, and you will take 
the surest method of rendering your delivery both agreeable and per- 
suasive. 

The next subject which claims attention is gesture or action. 
The best rule that can be given with respect to this subject is, to at- 
tend to the looks and gestures in which earnestness, indignation, 
compassion, or any other emotion, discovers itself to most advantage 
in the common intercourse of men. A judicious speaker will endea- 
vor to make his motions and gestures exhibit that kind of expression 
which nature has dictated, for unless this be the case, no study can 
prevent their appearing stiff and ungraceful. The study of action con- 
sists chiefly in guarding against awkward and disagreeable motions, 
and learning to perform, in the most graceful manner, such as are 
natural. 

The first object in the study of Elocution is to habituate the scholar 
to speak with distinctness and deliberation ; for till this has been ac- 
quired, no improvement can be made in elegance of expression. "An 
excellent method of teaching a distinct enunciation in speaking is," 
says Dr. Knox, "the motion of an instructed hand, resembling the 
beating of time in music, and directing the pauses of the learner, and 
the slower or quicker progress of his pronunciation. It is, likewise, 
very useful to insist, during this exercise, that every syllable, but espe- 
cially the last, shall strike the ear distinctly, but without dwelling upon 
it ; otherwise the slow and distinct manner will degenerate into the 



163 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 93. 

heavy and the sluggish. During this process, all monotony, and all 
disagreeable tones are to be carefully corrected." 

When a distinct and deliberate utterance has been obtained, and all 
disagreeable tones have been corrected, the student must endeavor to 
acquire an impressive and graceful utterance, with such a portion of 
action as good sense and observation may suggest. 

§ 93. VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain 
number of syllables, according to particular rules. 

A Foot is a part of a verse, and consists of two or three 
syllables. 

A certain number of syllables are said to be named Feet, because by their aid, 
the voice steps along, as it were, through the verse in a measured pace. 

A Verse is a certain number of connected feet forming 
one line. 

A Hemistich is half a verse. 

A Couplet or Distich consists of two verses ; a Triplet 
of three. 

The term hypercatalectic, hypermeter, or redundant, is applied to a 
verse when it exceeds the regular number of syllables. 

A Stanza or Stave is a combination of several verses, 
varying in number according to the poet's fancy, and con- 
stituting a regular division of a poem, or song. 

Rhyme is a similarity of sound between the last syllables 
of different lines, as in the following verses : — 

On what foundation stands the warrior's pride, 
How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide. 

In Blank Verse the final syllables do not rhyme. 

A CcBSura is a cessation of the voice, and occurs im- 
mediately after the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable of a 
verse ; as, 

The dumb shall sing || the lame his crutch forego, 

And leap exulting || like the bounding roe. H, 






§ 93, prosody. 169 

Metre is the arrangement of a certain number of poe- 
tical feet in a verse, according to the accent. 

To scan a verse is to divide it into its component feet. 

Alliteration consists in repeating the same letter or letters, at certain 
intervals ; as, 

Better to hunt in fields for health unboughtj 
Than fee the doctor for a nauseous draught. 

The Strophe was that part of the ancient hymn which was sung by 
the Greek chorus, in turning from east to west, while dancing round 
their altars. 

The Antistrophe was that part of the sacred hymn of the Greeks 
which was sung in returning from west to east, after they had danced 
round the altars. 

The Epode is the third or last part of an ode ; the ancient ode was 
divided into strophe, antistrophe, and epode. The epode was sung 
by the priest standing before the altar, after all the turns and returns 
of the strophe and antistrophe. The word epode signifies the end 
of the song. 

The Prologue, in dramatic poetry, is an explanatory exordium, ad- 
dressed to the audience before the drama begins 

The Epilogue, in the drama, is an address to the audience when the 
play is completed, and is generally written in poetry. 

All feet used in poetry are reducible to eight kinds ; 
four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : — 

DISSYLLABLE. TRISYLLABLE. 

A Trochee — - A Dactyl — — 

An Iambus — — An Amphibrach — — — 

A Spondee — — An Anapaest — < 

A Pyrrhic — ^ A Tribrach — ^ 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented,* and the last 
unaccented ; as, "Noble, happy." 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the 
last accented ; as, " Adore, defend." 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; 
as, " Vain man." 

* In versification, every accented syllable is long, every unaccented syllable 
te short. 

16 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 93. 

A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented ; 
as, " E'en in | the height." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two 
latter unaccented ; as, " Virtuous." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unac- 
cented, and the middle one accented ; as, " C6ntent- 
ment." 

An Anapast has the first two syllables unaccented, 
and the last accented ; as, " intercede." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, " Nu- 
merable." 

The Iambus, Trochee, and Anapaest, may be denominated princi- 
pal feet, as pieces of poetry are chiefly, and may be wholly, formed of 
them. The others may be termed secondary feet, because their chief 
use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. 
1. IAMBIC VERSES. 

Iambic verses have every second, fourth, and other even syllables 
accented, and are of various lengths. 

1. The shortest form of Iambic verse, consists of one Iambus with 
an hypermeter or additional syllable ; as, 

Consent | ing, 

Repent | ing. 
We have no poem of this measure, but it is sometimes introduced 
into stanzas. 

2. The second form of our Iambic is also too short to be continued 
through any number of lines. It consists of two Iambuses ; as, 

With Thee | we rise. 
With Thee | we reign 
And em | pires gain, 
Beyond j the skies. 
This form sometimes assumes an hypermeter syllable ; as, 
Upon | a moun | tain 
Beside j a f oun | tain. 

3. The third form consists of three Iambuses, and is continued only 
for a few lines ; as, 

In pla | ces far | or near, 
Or fa | mous or | obscure, 



§ 93. PROSODY. 171 

Where whole | some Is | the air, 
Or where | the most | impure. 
This form sometimes admits an additional short syllable ; as 
Our hearts | no long | er Ian | guish. 

4. The fourth form may extend through a considerable number of 
verses; it consists of four Iambuses ; as, 

How sleep | the brave | who sink | to rest 
By all their country's wishes blest ! 
When spring, with dewy fingers cold, 
Returns to deck their hallowed mould, 
But there shall dress a sweeter sod, 
Than fancy's feet have ever trod. 

5. The fifth species, or Heroic measure, consists of five Iambuses; 
as, 

Ye gilt | t'ring towns, | with wealth | and splend | our 

crown' d : 
Ye fields, where summer spreads profusion round ; 
Ye lakes, whose vessels catch the busy gale ; 
Ye bending swains, that dress the flow'ry vale ; 
For me your tributary stores combine ; 
Creation's heir, the world, the world is mine ! 
This measure may be used either with, or without rhyme, and fre- 
quently admits an additional syllable : a?, 

Worth makes | the man, | the want | of it I fhefel | Imv, 
The rest is nought but leather or prunelZo. 

6. The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called the Alexandrine 
measure ; it consists of six Iambuses. 

Forthou | artbut | of dust; | behum | bleand j be wise. 

The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme, and par- 
ticularly into stanzas after the manner of Spencer; and when used 
sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an agreeable variety. 

To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell, 
To slowly trace the forest's shady scene, 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 98. 

Where things that own not man's dominion dwell, 
And mortal foot hath ne'er, or rarely been j 
To climb the trackless mountain all unseen, 
With the wild flock that never needs a fold ; 
Alone o'er steeps and foaming falls to lean ; 
This is not solitude ; 'tis but to hold 

Converse | with Na \ ture's charms, \ and vieio l her stores \ un- 
rolVd. 
7. The seventh and last form of Iambic verse consists of seven 
Iambuses. 
The Lord | descend | ed from j above, | and bow'd | the heav | ens 
high. 
This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now broken into two ; 
the first containing four feet, and the second three ; as, 
Thou didst, | O migh j ty God ! | exist | 

Ere time | began j its race ; | 
Before the ample elements 

Fill'd up the void of space. 

2. TROCHAIC VERSE. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse consists of one Trochee, with an ad- 
ditional syllable ; as, 

Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace. 

2. The next form contains two Trochees ; as, 

Wishes | rising, 
Thoughts sur | prising, 
Pleasures j courting, 
Charms trans | porting. 
Sometimes this form admits an additional syllable ; as, 
In the | days 6f | old, 
Stories | plainly | told, 

3. The third species contains three Trochees ; as, 

When our | hearts are | mourning. 
This form frequently has an additional syllabic ; as, 

Vital | spark of j heav'nly \ flame, 
Quit, oh | quit, this | mortal | frame ! 



§ 93. prosody. 173 

Trembling, hoping, ling'ring, flying, 
Oh ! the pain, the bliss of dying : 
Cease fond nature, cease thy strife, 
And let me languish into life. 

4. The fourth form consists of four Trochees ; as, 

Round us | roars the j tempest | louder. | 
This form seldom assumes an additional syllable. 

5. The fifth species is not very common ; it is composed of five 
Trochees ; as, 

All that j walk Sn f foot Sr j ride in | chari5ts, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 
8, The sixth and last form consists of six Trochees ; as, 
On a | mountain, | stretch'd be | neath a j hoary J wil- 
low, j 
Lay a shepherd swain, and viewed the rolling billow. 

3. DACTYLIC VERSE. 
Dactylic verse is very rarely used. 

3. ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 

1. The first form of our Anapaestic verse consists of two Anapaests ; 
as, 

But his cou j rage 'gan fail, 

For no arts could avail. 
Sometimes this form assumes an additional short syllable ; as, 
Then his cou j rage, gan fail | him, 
For no arts could avail him. 

2. The second species, much used both in solemn and cheerful sub- 
jects, consists of three Anapaests. 

ye woods, [ spread y5ur branch | es apace ; 
To your deep | est recess | es I fly ; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chase, 
I would vanish from every eye. 

16* 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. §93, 

3. The third consists o£four Anapaests ; as, 
May I go | vern my pass | ions with ab j s6\ate sway; 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 
This form sometimes contains an additional syllable ; as, 

On the warm ] cheek of youth, | smiles and ro | ses 
are blend | mg. 

The preceding are the different kinds of the principal feet, in 
their simple forms. They are capable of numerous variations, by 
the intermixture of those feet with one another, and by the ad- 
mission of the secondary feet, as will be seen by the following ex- 
amples. 

THE PYRRHIC MIXED WITH THE IAMBIC. 

And to I the dead J my will | ing soul | shall go. 

THE SPONDEE WITH THE IAMBIC. 

Fdrbear | great man, j in arms | renown'd, | fftrbear. 

THE TROCHEE WITH THE IAMBIC. 

Tyrant | and slave, j those names | of hate | and fear. 

THE FOLLOWING CONSISTS OP AN IAMBIC AND TWO ANAPAESTS. 

My s6r j rows I then | might assuage 
In the ways | of reli | gicn and truth, 

Might learn j from the wis j dom of age, 
And be cheer'd | by the sal | lies of youth. 

5. OP BLANK VERSE. 

Our blank verse may be reckoned a noble, bold, and disencum- 
bered species of versification, and in several cases it possesses many 
advantages over rhyme. It allows the lines to run into one another 
with perfect freedom ; hence it is adapted to subjects of dignity and 
force, which demand more free and manly numbers than can be ob- 
tained in rhyme. Blank verse is written in the heroic measure, con- 
sisting often syllables. The principal poets in this species of compo- 
sition are Milton, Thomson, Armstrong, Akenside, Cowper, and 
Pollok. 



§ 94. prosody. 175 

§ 94. FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

A Figure of Speech is a mode of speaking, in which a word or 
sentence is to be understood in a sense different from its most common 
and literal meaning. 

THE PRINCIPAL FIGURES OF SPEECH ARE, 

Personification, Synecdoche, 

Simile, Antithesis, 

Metaphor, Climax, 

Allegory, Exclamation, 

Hyperbole, Interrogation, 

Irony, Paralepsis, 

Metonymy, Apostrophe. 

Prosopopaia, or Personification, is that figure of speech by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, The sea saw it 
and fled. 

A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to another ; 
as, He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water. 

A Metaphor is a simile without the sign (like, or as, &c.) of compa- 
rison ; as, He shall be a tree planted by, fyc. 

An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected in 
sense as to form a kind of parable or fable ; thus, The people of Is- 
rael are represented under the image of a vine ; Thou hast brought a 
vine out of Egypt, #c. Ps. lxxx. 8 to 17. 

An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or less, 
better or worse, than they realiy are ; as, When David says of Saul 
and Jonathan, They were swifter than eagles, they were stronger than 
lions. 

Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of what we 
say : as, When Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, Cry aloud, for 
he is a god, fyc. 

A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the effect, 
or the effect for the cause; as, when we say, He reads Milton; 
we mean Milton's works. Grey hairs should be respected, L e. old 
age. 

Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the whole for a 
part, a definite number for an indefinite, &c. as, The waves for the 
sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any great number. 
This figure is nearly allied to metonymy. 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 95. 

Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which different or contrary ob- 
jects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advantage ; 
thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked with the courage of 
the righteous, when he says, The icicked flee tvhen no man pursueth, 
but the righteous are bold as a lion. 

* Climax is the heightening of all the circumstances of an object or 
action, which we wish to place in a strong light; as, loho shall sepa- 
rate us from the love of Christ ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or per- 
secution, or famine, or 7iakednass, or peril, or sword ? Nay, <$*c. See 
also, Rom. viii. 38, 39. 

Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong emotion 
of the mind ; as, Oh the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the 
knoioledge of God ! 

Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion of our 
mind, and enliven our discourse by proposing questions; thus, Hath 
the Lord said it ? and shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall 
he not make it good ? 

Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker pretends to 
conceal what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing ; as, Hora- 
tius was once a very promising young gentleman, but in process of 
time he became so addicted to gaming, not to mention his drunkenness 
and debauchery, that he soon exhausted his estate and ruined his con- 
stitution. 

Apostrophe, is a turning off from the subject to address some other 
person or thing ; as, Death is swallowed tip in victory : death, where 
is thy sting ? 

§95. POETIC LICENSE. 

I. The first species of poetic license consists in an arrangement of 
words different from what is allowable in prose. 

1. The adjective is often placed after its noun, where in common 
prose it would precede it ; as, 

Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue. 

Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand, 

Showers on her kings barbaric, pearls and gold. 

2. The nominative sometimes follows, and the objective precedes, 
their respective verbs ; as, 

* Climax, Amplification, Enumeration, or Gradation, 



§ 05. PROSODY. 177 

No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets. 
A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 
His listless length at noontide would he stretch. 
Snatched in short eddies, plays the withered leaf. 

3. The infinitive mood often precedes the word on which it depends j 
as, 

When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, designed, 
To thee he gave the heavenly birthy 
And bade thee form her infant mind. 

4. The verb comes frequently between its nominatives ; as 

Then too, they say, through all the burdened air, 
Long groans are heard, shrill sounds, and distant sighs. 

His praise, ye brooks, attune, ye trembling rills. 

5. Prepositions are sometimes placed after the words which they 
govern; as, 

Where echo walks steep hills among. 

IT. In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases, are often used which 
would be inadmissible in prose ; as, 

A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 

By fountain clear, or spangled star-light sheen. 

Shall I receive by gift, what of my own, 

When and where likes me best, I can command ? 

Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey. 

The whiles, the vaulted shrine around, 
Seraphic wires were heard to sound. 

On the first friendly bank he throws him down. 

I'll seek the solitude he sought, 
And stretch me where he lay. 

Not Hector's self should want an equal foe. 

III. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than 
in prose ; as, 

Suffice, to-night, these orders to obey. 
M 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, § 95. 

Time is our tedious song should here have ending. 

For is there ought in sleep can charm the wise ? 

Tis fancy in her fiery car, 
Transports me to the thickest war. 

Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys. 

Bliss is the name in subject as a king, 
In who obtain defence, or who defend. 

IV. A syllable in poetry is often either omitted or added as best 
suits the measure ; as, 

Wail, for bewail : wilder, for bewilder ; plaint, for complaint ; 
amaze, for amazement ; eve or even, for evening ; helm, for helmet,; 
morn, for morning ; lone, for lonely ; dread, for dreadful ; list, for 
listen ; ope, for open ; lure, for allure j e'er, for ever ; ne'er, for 
never, &c. 

The language of poetry may be said to be a dialect appropriated 
almost solely to this species of composition. Not only the nature of 
the thoughts and sentiments, but the very selection and arrangement 
of the words, gives English poetry a character, which separates it 
widely from common prose. 

V. Adjectives in poetry are often elegantly connected with nouns 
which they do not strictly qualify ; as, 

The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. 

The tenants of the warbling shade. 

And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. 

VT. The rules of grammar are often violated by the poets. See 
Crombie Rule 14. 

1. A noun and its pronoun are often used in reference to the same 
verb; as, 

It ceased, the melancholy sound. 

My banks they are furnished with bees. 

2. The imperfect tense and the perfect participle are often substituted 
for each other, especially in rhyme ; as, 

Though parting from that mother he did shun, 
Before his weary pilgrimage begun. 



§ 95. prosody. 179 

3. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and to> the sign of 
the infinitive ; as, 

To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell ; 
To sloxoly trace the forest's shady scenes. 

VII. A common poetic license consists in employing or and nor 
instead of either and neither ; as, 



• And first 



Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea. 
Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest. 

VIII. Neuter verbs are often made active, and adjectives used like 
abstract nouns j as, 

The lightnings flash a larger curve. 

Still in harmonious intercourse, they lived 
The rural day, and talked the flowing heart. 

Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 
By chance or search, w T as offered to his view, 
He scanned with curious eye. 

IX. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are allowable in poetry 
though inadmissible in prose ; as, 

He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme. 

Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold. 

There are, who deaf to mad ambition's call 

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame. 

Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed. 

Never since created man 

Met such imbodied force. 

X. Contractions are often made in poetry, which are not allowable 
in prose ; and letters and syllables which are silent in prose are often 
sounded in poetry ; as, 

And ne^er again the boy his bosom sought 

They praised are alone, and starve right merrily. 

Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but denied to prose 
writers ; and, among other purposes which they obviously serve, they 
enhance the pleasure of reading poetic composition, by increasing the 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 96. 

boundary of separation set up, especially in our language, between it 
and common prose. Were such licenses not permitted in poetry, the 
difficulty attendant upon this species of composition would probably 
be so great, that hardly any person would attempt the arduous task of 
writing verse. 

§ 96. HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING. 

Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice of words,, 
and partly upon the form and structure of sentences. 

I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things to be observed, 
are Purity, Propriety, and Precision. 

PURITY. 

Purity consists in the rejection of such, words and phrases as are not 
strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice of good writers 
and speakers. 

1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression ; as, Fraicheur ; 
politesse ; he repents him of his folly. 

2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words ; as, Albeit, aforetime, 
inspectator, judgmatical. 

EXERCISES. 

The person is without encumberment. In the country, we associate 
with none but the bettermost sort of people. Snails exclude their 
horns, and therewith explorate their way. Methinks till now I never 
heard a sound more dreary. We walked adown the river side. Per- 
adventure he may call to-morrow. He is a very impopular speaker. 
I like his great candidness of temper. 

PROPRIETY. 

Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best adapted to 
express our meaning. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions ; as, to get into a scrape. 

2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical ; as, this 
morn ; the celestial orbs. 

3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who perfectly 
understand them. 

4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different senses ; 
as, the king communicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed 
it to the secretary, who made it known to the public ; His own rea- 
son might have suggested better reasons. 

5. Supply words that are wanting, and necessary to complete the 
sense ; thus, instead of this action increased his former services j say„ 
this action increased the merit of his former services. 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions ; as, his memory shall 
be lost on the earth. 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, I have an 
opaque idea of what you mean. 

EXERCISES. 

The composure of this psalm is attributed to David. They will 
meet at eve. Regard should be paid to the pupils' intended avoca- 



§ 96. HINTS FOR WRITING. 181 

tions. The observation of the Sabbath is incumbent upon every 
Christian. The negligence of this leaves us exposed to uncommon 
levity. He put an end to his own existence. I propose to give a 
general view of the subject. I wonder if he will come. He feels 
none of the sorrows that usually arrive at man. War should be so 
managed as to remember that its only end is peace. When Johnson 
was ill, he composed a prayer to deprecate God's mercy. There are 
both more and more important truths. He lives in a lone cottage. 
The Latin tongue in its purity was never in this ieland. Imprudent 
associations disqualify us for the instruction or reproof of others. 

PRECISION. 

Precision rejects superfluous words. 

1. Avoid tautology ; as, his faithfulness and fidelity were un- 
equalled. 

2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous ; 
thus, instead of, though his actions and intentions were good, he lost 
his character; say, he lost his reputation. 

EXERCISES. 

I took some wine and some water, and mixed them both together. 
He wandered throughout the whole city. They abhorred and de- 
tested being in debt. This man on all occasions, treated those around 
him with great haughtiness and disdain* His wealth and riches be- 
ing collected and accumulated in meanness, were squandered in riot 
and extravagance. Such conduct showed a marked and obvious in- 
tention to deceive and abuse us. He had proceeded but a short way 
on his journey, when he returned home again. 

II. With respect to Sentences, Clearness, Unity, Strength, and a 
proper application of the Figures of Speech, are necessary. 

CLEARNESS. 

Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be 
placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and in such 
a situation as the sense requires* 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 

3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for 
which they stand. 

EXERCISES. 

By the articles subsisting between us, on the day marriage, you 
agreed to pay down the sum of eight thousand pounds. Not to exas- 
perate him, I only spoke a very tew words. It has not a word, says 
Pope, but what the author religiously thinks in it. It is true what he 
says, but it is not applicable to the point. Had he died before, would 
not then this art have been wholly unknown. Most nations, not even 
excepting the Jews, were prone to idolatry. He will soon weary the 
company, who is himself wearied. 

UNITY. 

Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence, or a series 
of clauses. 

17 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 96. 

1. Separate into distinct sentences, such clauses as have no imme- 
diate connexion. 

2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most 
prominent, and the leading nominative should, if possible, be the sub- 
ject of every clause. 

3. Avoid the introduction of parenthesis, except when a lively re- 
mark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of 
what goes before. 

EXERCISES. 

Desires oi pleasure usher in temptation, and the growth of disor- 
derly passions is forwarded- The notions of Lord Sunderland were 
always good, but he was a man of great expense. A short time after 
this injury, he came to himself; and the next day they put him on 
board a ship, which conveyed him first to Corinth, and thence to the 
island of iEgina. He who performs every employment in its due 
place and season, suffers no part of time to escape without profit ; and 
thus his days become multiplied ; and much of life is enjoyed in little 
space. Never delay till to-morrow, (for to-morrow is not yours ; and 
though you should live to enjoy it, you must not overload it with a 
burden not its own,) what reason and conscience tell you ought to be 
performed to-day. 

STRENGTH. 

Strength gives to every word and every member its due impor- 
tance. 

1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and mem- 
bers. In the following sentence, the word printed in Italics should 
be omitted ; being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained sub- 
mission. 

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which they 
will make the strongest impression. 

3. A weaker assertion should net follow a stronger ; and, when the 
sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding 
one. 

4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other, 
where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some re- 
semblance in the language and construction should be preserved. 

5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, or any 
inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it be emphatic. 

EXERCISES. 

It is six months ago, since I paid a visit to my relations. Sus- 
pend your censure so long, till your judgment be wisely formed. 
The reason why he spoke as he did, he never explained. If I mistake 
not, I think he has made great improvement since I last saw him. 
Those two gentlemen appear both to be foreigners. I fear this is the 
last time that we shall ever meet. How many are there, by whom 
these tidings of good news were never heard. This measure may af- 
ford some profit, and furnish some amusement Thought and lan- 
guage act and re-act mutually upon each other. Sinful pleasures 
blast the opening prospects of human felicity, and degrade human 



§ 07. HINTS FOR WRITING. 183 

honor. Generosity is a splendid virtue, which many persons are very 
fond of! As no one is without his failings, so few want good qualities. 

FIGURES OF SPEECH. 

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except 
when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, 
not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far. 

3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended toge- 
ther. 

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be pre- 
served throughout, and different figures never jumbled together. 

EXERCISES. 

No human happiness is so serene as not to contain some alloy. I 
intend to make use of these words in the thread of my speculations. 
Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through the thickest gloom. 
Let us keep our mouths with a bridle, and steer our vessel so as to 
avoid the rocks and shoals which meet us at every step. We are all 
embarked on a troubled sea, and every step of our journey brings U9 
into new perils. Let us keep alive the flame of devotion in the soul, 
and not suffer our minds to sink into utter indifference about spiritual 
matters. 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES. 

When favors of every kind are conferred speedily, they are doubled. 
I wish to cultivate your acquaintance. In no situation did he ever, at 
any time, make so poor an appearance. Many things occur which 
are know T n only to the eye of him, to whom all things lie open and ex- 
posed. There can be no manner of doubt but that his services will 
be rewarded. John's temper quite disqualified him for instruction. 
The business, in which he was then engaged, engrossed the whole of 
his time and attention. He disposed of his house, together w 7 ith all 
his furniture, at a very trifling sum. He was a boy of but twelve 
years old, when I saw him at his father's. No employment but a 
bookseller would satisfy him. This matter I had a great mind to re- 
ply to. He must pay attention both to what goes before, and imme- 
diately follows after. To-day we are here ; to-morrow we are 
gone. I went home full of a great many serious reflections. Shall 
they treat as visionary, objects which they never have made them- 
selves acquainted with. I perceived that it had been scoured with 
half an eye. 

§ 97. COMPOSITION. 

To be able to compose with ease and accuracy is one of the first of 
human attainments. It is the fruit of careful study and long practice, 
requiring an intimate acquaintance with language, a knowledge of its 
grammatical structure, as well as an intimacy with the works of the 
most distinguished authors, who have made it the vehicle for commu- 
nicating their thoughts. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* §07 

As a preparatory step to the important business of composition, the 
pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of grammar, may be exer- 
cised with great advantage upon the transposition of words and mem- 
bers in sentences, so as to try in how many different ways the same 
thought or sentiment may be expressed. This will give him a con- 
siderable command of language, and prove, at the same time, a source ot 
considerable mental cultivation. It is often necessary to give an entirely 
new turn to an expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant 
or even perspicuous. 

There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing a 
thought may be varied. 

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an active 
verb j as, The sun dissolves the snow ; The snow is dissolved by the 
sun. 

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing the 
order in which the words stand in the sentence ; as, Competence 
may be acquired by industry ; By industry competence may be ac- 
quired. 

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative into an 
affirmative, of an entirely contrary character ; as, Virtue promote* 
happiness ; Virtue does not promote misery. 

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words employed to 
express any sentiment ; as, Diligence and application are the best 
means of improvement; Nothing promotes improvement like diligence 
and application. 

EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided it can be 
done with safety. A good man has respect to the feelings of others 
in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for a good cause is 
noble ; silently to suffer for it is heroic. Provided he be himself in 
comfortable circumstances, the selfish man has no concern about the 
circumstances of others. The man who can make light of the suffer- 
ings of others, is himself entitled to no compassion. Sloth is one of 
man's deadliest enemies. He who made light spring from primeval 
darkness, will, at last, make order rise from the seeming confusion of 
the world. 

EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION. 

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state 
evidently declined. The Roman state, in proportion to the increase 
of luxury, evidently declined. 

EXERCISES ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praise-worthy than his sister's. It is better 
to be moved by false glory, than not to be moved at all. I shall at- 
tend the meeting, if I can do it. with convenience. He who improves 
in modesty, as he improves in knowledge, has an undoubted claim 
to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness 
and affability. There is no such obstacle to the attainment of ex- 



§ 97. COMPOSITION. 185 

cellence, as the power of producing, with facility, what is tolerably 
good. Industry is not only the instrument of improvement, but the 
foundation of pleasure. A wolf let into the sheep-fold, will devour the 
nheep. 

EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OP EXPRESSION. 

His conduct was less praise- worthy than his sister's. His sister's 
conduct was more praise-worthy than his. His sister's mode of act- 
ing was entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was less en- 
titled to praise than that of his sister, &c. 

Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for compo- 
sition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young, a list of 
words with directions to form from them such sentences as shall con- 
tain these words. 

EXERCISES. 

Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one or 
more of the following words : — Contentment, behavior, consideration, 
elevation, distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse, evidence, 
social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate, consternation, 
temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, &c. 

LETTERS. 

One of the simplest and yet most useful species of composition, 
is letter- writing. This species of composition may be practised either 
by way of real correspondence between those pursuing the same 
studies, or it may consist of letters written to imaginary correspon- 
dents. The following are a few topics adapted to composition of this 
latter kind : 

Letter 1st. — Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the object 
of your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, and how 
^ou like them. Mention how yourself and friends are. Give an ac- 
count of some of the alterations which have been lately made, or are 
now making in your neighborhood ; and conclude by expressing your 
desire either to see him or hear from him soon. 

Letter 2d. — "Write to a companion an account of a long walk which 
you lately had. Tell him whether you were alone or in company. 
Mention what particular things struck you by the way; and enumer- 
ate all the incidents that occurred of any moment. 

Letter 3d. — Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you a 
present of books, and thank him for such kindness. Tell him the use 
you intend to make of them ; and inform him to what particular books 
you are most partial. Conclude by giving some account of those you 
nave been lately reading, and how you like them. 

Letter 4th. — Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. De- 
scribe to him how you would feel if called to leave your friends and 
your native country. Express your regret at losing him ; but state 
your hope that you will not forget each other when seas roll between 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. § 97. 

you. Request him to write to you frequently ; and advise him to be 
careful about his health, and of the society he keeps. 

Letter 5th. — Write to a friend at a distance ; and give him an ac- 
count of a sail which you lately had in a steam-boat. Mention what 
places you visited ; and state the objects that most delighted you. 
Tell him how long you were away, what sort of weather you had, 
and what were your feelings upon returning home. 

Letter bth. — Write to a friend an account of the church you were at 
last Sabbath* Tell who preached ; mention the psalms or hymns that 
were sung ; and the portions of Scripture that were read. State the 
texts from which the minister preached ; and give your opinion of the 
different sermons. 

These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upon which 
the student who has acquired a knowledge of grammar may be re- 
quired to write. The prudent and skilful teacher will be enabled to 
multiply and vary them at pleasure and to any extent. 

Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in composition, 
consists in reading some simple story or narrative, till such time as 
they are acquainted with the facts, and then directing them to ex- 
press these in their own words. A still further and perhaps even a 
simpler method, is, to take advantage of a young person's having 
given some account of what he has either seen, heard, or read, and de- 
sire him to commit to writing what he has stated orally. 

themes. 

The next step in composition is the writing of regular themes. 
The subject, however, should always be such as is not above the ca- 
pacity of the person who is desired to compose, or, if it is, the whole 
benefit resulting from the exercise will be nullified. 

A theme is a regular set subject upon which a person is required to 
write ; or the dissertation that has been written upon such a subject 
Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those drawn from natural 
history, or natural philosophy. At all events they should not, in the 
first instance, be drawn from subjects of an abstruse and abstract 
character. 

The following may serve as specimens in this department : — 

Theme 1st— The horse. — 1. Describe what sort of animal the 
horse is. 2. Tell some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the various 
ways in which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 4. State 
what would be the consequence of wanting him. 5. Mention the 
treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of ill-using such a 
creature. 

Write themes upon the cow, the dog, the sheep, and upon poultry ; 
and follow the same plan as that which you followed in writing upon 
the horse. 

Theme 2d. — The sun.— 1. Begin by stating what the sun is. 2. 
Tell all you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. 3. 
Mention the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we derive 



§97. 



COMPOSITION. 187 



from it. 4. State what would be the consequence if the sun were ex- 
tinguished ; and what our feelings ought to be toward the Supremo 
Being for such an object 

Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, and water ; and 
in all follow the same plan. 

Theme 3d. — Day and night. — 1. Tell what you mean by day and 
night 2. State whether they are always alike long ; and what is the 
advantage arising from their lengths being different at different sea- 
sons. 3. Mention the different purposes for which they are adapted. 
4. Say of what the continued succession of day and night is fitted to 
remind us, and how this should lead us to act. 

Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains, ri- 
vers, and the tides of the sea ; and follow a similar plan in the whole. 

Theme 4th. — On Composition. — 1. Explain what you mean by this 
terra. 2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by showing 
how much it contributes to add to the value of one's knowledge. 
3. Mention what is necessary to fit one for composing well. 4. State 
the means by which skill in this art is to be obtained. 

Theme 5th. — On Company. — 1. Explain what you mean by compa- 
ny. 2. Show how natural ft is for man to seek society. 3. State the 
danger of keeping either too much company, or of keeping bad com- 
pany. 4. Point out the advantages of good company. 

Write themes upon Conversation, Study, Improvement of Time, 
Choice of Books, Memory, the different Organs of Sense, &c. ; and 
in all follow the same method as you did in writing on Company. 



THE RNTK. 



REMARKS ON REAmfitf- TflJC SECOND EDITION OF 

The Principles of English Grammar? 

By Professor Bullions. 

It is more than seventy-five years since Lowth's Introduction 
created this a new department of learning, at once independent 
of Latin, inviting to the scholar, and intelligible to the unlearned. 
Classical minds, offended with the ignorance, vanity and rude 
taste, of a thousand writers on grammar, will again be refreshed 
with the logical definitions, the brevity and method, the taste 
and completeness of this second Lowth. It also has claims on 
several classes of instructors: 

1. Those who would lead their pupils early to other langua- 
ges, will find this a natural gradus j 

2. Those who wish the first book to be also the last, can dis- 
pense with others ; 

3. This is well suited to inure the tender mind, or the rude, to 
a plain, practical and inviting logic; and is a pleasing prepara- 
tion to the study of rhetoric and criticism; and its ever varying 
examples furnish no mean enchiridion on the rule of life. 

In all these respects, it is no injustice to good authors to claim 
the first place for the Grammar of the Albany Academy. 

GILBERT MORGAN, 
Late PresH of Western Univ. of Pa. 
Albany, Sept. 20, 1837. 

[From the Newark (N. J.) Daily Advertiser.'] 
The Principles of English Grammar; comprising the substance 
of the most approved English Grammars extant: with copious 
exercises in Parsing and Syntax, for the use of Academies and 
Common Schools. (On the plan of Murray's Grammar.) 
Second edition, revised and corrected. By the Rev. Peter 
Bullions, Professor of Languages in the Albany Academy; 
author of "Elements of the Greek Language." New-York: 
Robert Carter, 112 Canal-street, 1837. 12 mo. pp.187. 
We are gratified to perceive, that a new edition of this excel- 
lent manual has been demanded. It is not even every learned 
man who is competent to the work of making an English Gram- 
mar ; yet we have been flooded with the crude and arrogant at- 
tempts of scores of unlettered country school-masters, until the 
very sight of such a book excites a qualm. Some have made it 
their study to introduce new orthography, and to invent a system 
for rendering the English and American language as unlike as 
possible ; others have intruded a new fangled terminology, and, 
without sufficient reason, have discarded the names and distinc- 
tions which have been approved by the grammarians of all coun- 
tries. Dr. Bullions is not to be ranked among these sciolists. 
As a ripe scholar, thoroughly versed in the intricacies of the 
classic tongues* — which his Greek Grammar fully attests— he has 
come well furnished to the task ; yet with a modesty which can- 
not be too highly commended, he has withheld his hand from 
every innovation, and has thus produced what, after careful exa- 
mination, we scruple not to recommend as the best school manu- 
al of English Grammar which we have ever seen. 



UNDER REVISION, 
And will be published as soon as practicable, by the same Author, 

Elements of the Greek Language, 

2d EDITION, REVISED AND IMPROVED. 

This work contains, in a condensed form, the substance of the 
best works on the Greek Language that have yet been published, 
and is equally adapted to the use of the beginner and the advanc- 
ed student. The former, owing to the brevity and comprehen- 
siveness of the rules, which are printed with a larger type, will 
find it comparatively easy to obtain a knowledge of the outlines 
of Greek Grammar; and the latter will find in its place, ample 
assistance in almost every difficulty he may expect to meet with, 
either in the Etymology or Syntax of the language. 

By careful condensation, this edition is greatly reduced in size, 
without, in any degree, impairing its value. The following re- 
commendations, appended to the first edition, will show the opi- 
nion that is formed of it by the most competent judges. 

Report of a Committee of the Trustees of the Albany Academy, 
appointed by the Board to examine the MSS. previous to its pub- 
lication. 

We, the subscribers, have examined a new edition of Moor's 
Greek Grammar, by Professor Bullions, of the Albany Acade- 
my, so far as to be satisfied that it contains many important im- 
provements above any other grammar of which we have any 
knowledge. Professor B. has, with great labor, examined the 
most approved works of this kind, and has incorporated into his 
own, most judiciously, as we think, whatever is most important 
in each. We cordially recommend it as fitted to facilitate in an 
uncommon degree, the study of the Hnguage; and cannot doubt, 
that when its merits are generally known, it will be extensively 
used in our literary institutions. 

WILLIAM B. SPRAGUE, 
ALFRED CONKLING, 
JOHN LUDLOW. 

Extract of a letter from the Rev. Dr. Proudfit, Professor of 
Languages, Union College, Schenectady. 

I have been acquainted with Moor's Grammar for about thirty 
years, and have no hesitation in declaring, that I consider it in- 
comparably the best I have ever examined, for acquiring both a 
speedy and thorough acquaintance with the principles of the 
Greek language. From the outlines which you have shewn me 
of the notes and illustrations with which you intend to accompa- 
ny the work, I anticipate that they will form a valuable addition 
without detracting from its present merits* 



/ 







From the Rev. Nathaniel S. Prime, Mount-Pleasant Academy, near 

Sing-Sing. 

I have no hesitation in saying that I consider Moor's decidedly 
the best Grammar extant, for the use of scholars, in acquiring a 
correct knowledge of the principles of the Greek language. I 
have used it in preference to all others for the last eleven years. 

Having had the privilege of examining the result of your la- 
bors as far as the Syntax, I can say with the utmost sincerity ,\if 
the typographical execution shall correspond with the matter, 
your Grammar will, in my humble opinion, stand without a rival. 
Just such a work is, in my opinion, a great desideratum for both 
our Grammar Schools amLColleges at the present day. 

From the Rev. Alexander McClelland, now Professor of Oriental 
Literature, and late Professor of Languages, Rutger's College t 
New-Jersey. 

Rev. and Dear Sir — I ought to have acknowledged your ac- 
ceptable present long before this, but have been prevented by the 
circumstance that my successor, Professor Ogilvie, whom I re- 
quested to examine the work, has not yet found leisure to do so. 
Of the Grammar, I myself think most highly. It is a thorough 
and capital work, embracing every thing essential even to the 
advanced student, and almost entirely superseding the necessity 
of purchasing Matthise, Buttman, or any other of the German 
Grammars. Nov. 1832. 



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